Eco. 391 Online Quiz/ Discussion (Structure of a Research Project, Researcher and Methodological Debate)—18/4/2023

Ezugwu Ebere Bethel
2019/246656
Edu/Econs
1. Congratulations! You have been nominated and Mr. President wants to appoint you as his Special Adviser on Research Methods and Documentation. As an academic and policy researcher you will apply your expertise and skills developed through study and research. You aim to publish papers on your work in peer-reviewed, well-respected journals and will write reports, policy briefs, books or chapters of books on your specialist area of knowledge. A significant amount of your time will also be spent on planning research, attending meetings with colleagues and contributing to the strategic direction of the administration. The role will also involve working with the economic team to develop ground-breaking ways and ensure insights are developed to support policy making efforts of the administration. What characteristics and qualities do you possess as a good researcher to fit into this position?

2. Discuss the structure of a final year project in Economics and what should be found at every section and sub-section.

3. List and discuss at least 7 issues associated with methodology debate; how can these issues be
resolved in other to improve research?

4. Define the concept of Referencing, list and discuss at least 5 referencing methods (with relevant examples) and discuss how significant it is to the design of research proposal.

Question 1
Qualities of a good researcher
Result oriented
Efficiency – maximum productivity with minimum effort
Scientific- careful and using a system or method
Effective- doing the right thing
Active- engaging or ready to engage
Resourceful – having the ability to find quick skillful and clearer ways to dealing with new situations and overcome difficulties
Creative- relating or involving the use of the imagination or original ideas
Honest- free of deceit,truthful and sincere
Economical – careful not to waste money or resources
Reputable – held in good repute, honorable etc

Question 2
The structure and content of sections and subsections in a research paper may vary depending on the specific requirements of the academic or publication guidelines, the type of research being conducted, and the author’s preferences. However, in general, a typical research paper may include the following sections and subsections:
1. Title: This section includes the title of the research paper, which should be concise, informative, and relevant to the research topic.
2. Abstract: This section provides a brief summary of the research paper, usually no more than 250 words. It should briefly describe the research problem, objectives, methods, results, and conclusions of the study.
3. Introduction: This section introduces the research problem, provides background information on the topic, and presents the research question or hypothesis. It may also include a literature review that reviews relevant research and establishes the context for the study.
4. Methods: This section describes the research design, participants, data collection procedures, and data analysis methods used in the study. It should provide enough detail for the study to be replicated by other researchers.
5. Results: This section presents the findings of the research, usually in the form of tables, figures, or other visual representations. It should provide a clear and concise description of the results without interpretation or discussion.
6. Discussion: This section interprets the results, discusses their implications, and relates them to the research question or hypothesis. It may also compare the findings with previous research, identify limitations of the study, and suggest directions for future research.
7. Conclusion: This section summarizes the main findings of the study and provides a concise conclusion based on the research results. It should avoid introducing new information and may include recommendations or implications for practice.
8. References: This section lists all the sources that were cited in the research paper, following a specific citation style (such as APA, MLA, or Chicago).
9. Appendices: This section includes any supplementary material that is not included in the main body of the paper, such as raw data, additional tables or figures, or research instruments used in the study.
It’s important to note that the organization and structure of a research paper may vary depending on the specific requirements of the target publication or the author’s preferences. Always refer to the specific guidelines provided by your institution or the target publication when structuring your research paper.

Question 3
1. Selection bias: Selection bias occurs when the sample used in a study is not representative of the population of interest, leading to inaccurate or biased results. To address selection bias, researchers can use random sampling techniques to ensure that every member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the study. This can help minimize the potential for selection bias and increase the generalizability of the findings.
2. Confounding variables: Confounding variables are factors that can affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables in a study, leading to spurious or misleading results. To mitigate confounding variables, researchers can use techniques such as matching, stratification, or statistical control to account for their effects. Additionally, conducting randomized controlled trials (RCTs) where participants are randomly assigned to different groups can help control for confounding variables and establish cause-and-effect relationships.
3. Measurement error: Measurement error refers to inaccuracies or inconsistencies in the measurement of variables, which can lead to inaccurate results. Researchers can minimize measurement error by using reliable and valid measurement instruments, conducting pilot testing to refine measurement procedures, and ensuring that data collection procedures are standardized and well-documented. Using multiple measures or methods to assess the same variable can also help increase the reliability of the findings.
4. Sample size and power: Sample size refers to the number of participants in a study, and power refers to the ability of a study to detect a statistically significant effect if it exists. Small sample sizes can result in low statistical power, increasing the likelihood of Type II errors (false negatives) and reducing the generalizability of the findings. Researchers can address this issue by conducting power analyses to determine the optimal sample size for their study, and by striving to recruit an adequate number of participants to ensure reliable and valid results.
5. Ethical considerations: Ethical issues can arise in research methodology, such as ensuring informed consent, protecting participants’ confidentiality and privacy, and avoiding harm. Researchers can address these issues by following established ethical guidelines and obtaining approval from relevant institutional review boards (IRBs) or ethics committees. Informed consent should be obtained from all participants, and steps should be taken to protect their rights and well-being throughout the research process.
6. Data analysis and interpretation: Data analysis and interpretation can be complex, and different methods can yield different results. Researchers should carefully select appropriate statistical techniques, ensure that data are analyzed correctly, and interpret findings in light of their limitations. It is important to report findings transparently, including any limitations or potential biases, and to avoid overgeneralizing or making unsupported conclusions.
7. Replicability and reproducibility: Replicability refers to the ability of other researchers to reproduce the findings of a study using the same methods and data, while reproducibility refers to the ability to obtain similar results using different methods or data. Replicability and reproducibility are critical for establishing the validity and reliability of research findings. To promote replicability and reproducibility, researchers should provide clear and detailed descriptions of their methods, share their data and materials, and use open science practices such as pre-registration and data sharing. Additionally, peer review and independent replication studies can help validate research findings and identify any potential issues with methodology.
In summary, methodology issues in research can impact the validity, reliability, and generalizability of findings. Researchers can address these issues by using appropriate sampling techniques, controlling for confounding variables, minimizing measurement error, ensuring ethical considerations, conducting adequate power analyses, using appropriate data analysis and interpretation techniques, and promoting replicability and reproducibility through transparent research practices.

Question 4
Referencing is acknowledging and citing sources used in academic writing, giving credit to original authors, allowing verification, upholding academic integrity, and enabling further exploration.
Referencing methods
1.
2. APA (American Psychological Association) Style: This referencing style is commonly used in the social sciences and is known for its emphasis on author-date in-text citations and a detailed reference list at the end of the document. Example in-text citation: (Smith, 2019, p. 42) Example reference list entry: Smith, J. (2019). Title of the article. Journal of Psychology, 25(3), 38-52.
3. MLA (Modern Language Association) Style: This referencing style is commonly used in the humanities, especially in literature, arts, and humanities disciplines. It uses author-page in-text citations and a Works Cited list at the end of the document. Example in-text citation: (Johnson 56) Example Works Cited entry: Johnson, R. Title of the book. Publisher, 2018.
4. Chicago Style: This referencing style is commonly used in history, arts, and social sciences. It has two variations: the Notes-Bibliography System, which uses footnotes or endnotes for in-text citations and a bibliography at the end, and the Author-Date System, which uses author-date in-text citations and a reference list. Example footnotes citation: ^1Smith, John. Title of the book. Publisher, 2017. Example Author-Date citation: (Smith 2017)
5. Harvard Style: This referencing style is commonly used in the sciences and social sciences. It uses author-date in-text citations and a reference list at the end of the document. Example in-text citation: (Smith 2016) Example reference list entry: Smith, J. (2016). Title of the article. Journal of Science, 45(2), 123-145.
6. IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Style: This referencing style is commonly used in engineering, computer science, and other technical fields. It uses numeric in-text citations in square brackets and a numbered reference list at the end of the document. Example in-text citation: [1] Example reference list entry: [1] Smith, J. Title of the article. IEEE Transactions on Engineering, 2015, 12(3), 456-467.
Note: These are just examples of commonly used referencing styles. It is important to refer to the specific guidelines of the citation style required by your institution or publication for accurate referencing.

1. Establishing the credibility and reliability of the proposal: Referencing allows you to acknowledge and cite the sources of information or ideas that you have used to support your research proposal. This helps establish the credibility and reliability of your proposal by demonstrating that it is based on existing research and scholarly work.
2. Demonstrating the extent of literature review: A research proposal typically includes a literature review, which is an overview of relevant existing research on the topic. Referencing enables you to provide proper credit to the authors of the works you have reviewed, and helps demonstrate the extent of your literature review by citing the sources you have consulted.
3. Supporting the validity and robustness of the proposal: By referencing relevant sources, you can provide evidence and support for the research questions, hypotheses, or claims made in your proposal. Referencing allows you to back up your arguments with authoritative sources, which enhances the validity and robustness of your proposal.
4. Avoiding plagiarism and upholding academic integrity: Plagiarism, which is the unethical or unauthorized use of others’ work as one’s own, is a serious academic offense. Referencing helps you avoid plagiarism by properly citing the sources you have used, giving credit to the original authors, and upholding academic integrity and ethical research practices.
5. Enabling further research and validation: Referencing provides a comprehensive list of sources that can serve as a valuable resource for other researchers who may be interested in your topic. It allows them to further explore the literature, validate your findings, and build upon your research. Proper referencing also facilitates the peer-review process, where reviewers can verify the accuracy and appropriateness of the sources cited in your proposal.
In summary, referencing is significant to the design of a research proposal as it establishes credibility, supports the validity of arguments, avoids plagiarism, upholds academic integrity, and enables further research. Proper referencing is an essential aspect of research proposal writing, ensuring that your work is transparent, credible, and aligned with the standards of academic integrity.

QUESTION ONE

As a good researcher, some of the characteristics and qualities that would enable you to fit into this position as Special Adviser on Research Methods and Documentation include:

(1)Expertise in research methods and documentation: You should have a deep understanding of research methods and documentation, including data collection, analysis, and interpretation. You should be able to design and execute research projects, and effectively communicate research findings to different audiences.

(2)Analytical skills: You should be able to analyze complex data and information, identify patterns, and draw conclusions from the results of research. You should also be able to develop innovative research methodologies and approaches to address complex policy issues.

(3)Communication skills: You should have excellent written and verbal communication skills, and be able to effectively communicate research findings to different audiences, including policymakers, academics, and the general public. You should be able to write clear and concise reports, policy briefs, and other research outputs.

(4)Collaborative skills: You should be able to work effectively with colleagues, stakeholders, and policymakers, and be able to build and maintain relationships with a diverse range of people. You should be able to work as part of a team, and be able to lead and manage research projects effectively.

(5)Strategic thinking: You should be able to think strategically about the role of research in policymaking, and be able to identify key policy issues and research questions that can inform policy decisions. You should be able to develop and implement research agendas that support the strategic objectives of the administration.

(6)Ethical considerations: You should be aware of ethical considerations in research, and be able to ensure that research is conducted in an ethical and responsible manner. You should be able to identify and manage potential conflicts of interest, and ensure that research is conducted in compliance with ethical and legal standards.

QUESTION TWO

A final year project in Economics typically follows a standard structure that includes the following sections:

(1)Introduction: This section provides an overview of the research topic, the research question, and the purpose of the study. The introduction should also provide a brief background of the topic and the research gap the project aims to address.

(2)Literature Review: This section presents a critical analysis of the existing literature on the topic, highlighting the theories, concepts, and empirical studies relevant to the research question. The literature review should identify the gaps, inconsistencies, and controversies in the literature and explain how the project will contribute to filling these gaps.

(3)Methodology: This section outlines the research design, data collection methods, and analytical techniques used in the study. It should provide a clear and detailed description of the sample selection, data collection procedures, and statistical analysis techniques.

(4)Results: This section presents the findings of the study, highlighting the key empirical results and their implications for the research question. It should also include relevant tables, figures, and charts to support the analysis.

(5)Discussion: This section provides an interpretation and discussion of the findings, addressing the research question and the research objectives. It should also compare the findings with the existing literature, highlight the contributions of the study, and identify the limitations and implications for future research.

(6)Conclusion: This section provides a summary of the key findings, the main conclusions, and the implications of the study. It should also provide recommendations for future research and policy implications.

References: This section lists all the sources cited in the project using the appropriate referencing style.

QUESTION THREE

The methodology debate in research is a crucial aspect that determines the validity, reliability, and generalizability of study findings. There are several issues associated with the methodology debate that need to be resolved to improve the quality of research. Below are seven of the most significant issues:

RESEARCH BIAS:
Research bias refers to the intentional or unintentional distortion of research findings, either through the researcher’s personal opinions, cultural background, or external factors. It can be resolved through transparency in the research process, open discussion of the researcher’s opinions and beliefs, and ensuring that data analysis is conducted objectively.

GENERALIZABILITY: The issue of generalizability arises when the results of a study cannot be applied to a wider population. To improve this, researchers should carefully select their sample size, ensure that the population is adequately represented, and use statistical tests to determine the degree of generalizability.

SAMPLE SIZE: A small sample size can lead to inaccurate results, and a large sample size can lead to unnecessary expense and time. Researchers should determine the appropriate sample size required to achieve sufficient statistical power to detect a significant effect.

DATA COLLECTION METHODS: The methods used to collect data can affect the reliability and validity of the results. Researchers should choose appropriate methods that are relevant to their research question and ensure that they are accurately recorded.

RESEARCH ETHICS: Ethical issues such as informed consent, confidentiality, and privacy are crucial in research. Researchers should ensure that their study adheres to ethical guidelines to protect the rights and well-being of their participants.

QUANTITATIVE vs. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: The debate between quantitative and qualitative research methods has been ongoing for a long time. Researchers should choose the most appropriate method based on their research question, data type, and research design.

REPLICATION: Replication is crucial in research as it ensures that the results are reliable and valid. Researchers should ensure that their study is replicable by providing detailed instructions and procedures for data collection and analysis.

In summary, researchers should be aware of the various issues associated with the methodology debate and strive to resolve them to improve the quality of their research. They should use appropriate methods, carefully select their sample size, ensure transparency in the research process, adhere to ethical guidelines, and promote replicability

QUESTION FOUR

Referencing is the process of acknowledging and citing sources used in a written work or research project. It involves providing a list of sources used in the research and attributing the ideas or data presented in the work to the original author or source. Referencing is essential in academic writing as it demonstrates the credibility of the research and ensures that the work is not considered as plagiarism.

Here are five referencing methods commonly used in academic writing:

APA (American Psychological Association) referencing style: APA style is widely used in social sciences, such as psychology and education. It involves the author-date citation system, where the surname of the author and the year of publication are included in the in-text citation. For example, (Smith, 2019). The full reference for the source is provided in the reference list at the end of the paper.

MLA (Modern Language Association) referencing style: MLA style is used in literature, language, and humanities. It uses the author-page citation system, where the author’s surname and the page number are included in the in-text citation. For example, (Smith 23). The full reference is provided in the Works Cited list at the end of the paper.

HARVARD REFERENCING STYLE: Harvard style is widely used in the social sciences and business. It uses the author-date citation system, where the author’s surname and the year of publication are included in the in-text citation. For example, (Smith 2019). The full reference is provided in the reference list at the end of the paper.

CHICAGO REFERENCING STYLE: Chicago style is used in history and some social sciences. It uses footnotes or endnotes for in-text citations, where the author’s surname, title, and publication details are included. For example, Smith, John. “Title of the article.” Journal name (Year of publication): page numbers. The full reference is provided in the bibliography at the end of the paper.

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) referencing style: IEEE style is used in engineering and technology. It uses a numerical citation system, where sources are numbered in the order in which they appear in the text. For example, [1]. The full reference is provided in the reference list at the end of the paper, with the source numbers used in the text.

Referencing is crucial in the design of a research proposal because it ensures that the proposal is based on credible and relevant sources. Referencing demonstrates that the researcher has conducted a thorough literature review and understands the existing research on the topic. Referencing also helps the researcher to avoid plagiarism and provide evidence to support the claims made in the proposal. Additionally, referencing enables other researchers to locate the sources used in the proposal and build on the research

Obiora Franklyn
2019/247768

Curiosity.

They ask questions. An endless thirst for knowledge is what sets the best of the best apart from the others. Good researchers constantly strive to learn more, not just about their own field, but about other fields as well. The world around us is fascinating, be it the physics behind the way light refracts, or the anthropological constructions of our society. A good researcher keeps exploring the world and keeps searching for answers.

Analytical ability and foresight
They look for connections. Information is useless without interpretation. What drives research forward is finding meaning in our observations and data. Good researchers evaluate data from every angle and search for patterns. They explore cause and effect and untangle the tricky web that interconnects everyday phenomena. And then take it one step further to ask, ‘What is the bigger picture? How will the research develop in the future?’

Determination
They try, try, and try again. Research can be a frustrating experience. Experiments may not pan out how we expect them to. Even worse, sometimes experiments may run smoothly until they are 95% complete before failing. What sets an average researcher apart from a truly good one? The truly good researcher perseveres. They accept this disappointment, learn from the failure, reevaluate their experiment, and keep moving forward.

Collaboration
Teamwork makes the dream work. Contrary to the common perception of the solitary genius in their lab, research is an extremely collaborative process. There is simply too much to do for just one person to do it all. Moreover, research is becoming increasingly multidisciplinary. It is impossible for just one person to have expertise in all these fields. In general, research is conducted in teams, with each researcher having their individual roles and responsibilities. Being able to coordinate, communicate, and get along with team members is a major factor that can contribute to one’s success as a researcher

Communication
They get their message across. Communication skills are an essential asset for every researcher. Not only do they have to communicate with their team members, but they also have to communicate with co-authors, journals, publishers, and funders. Whether it is writing a crisp and effective abstract, presenting at a conference, or writing a persuasive grant proposal to secure research funding, communication appears everywhere in a researcher’s life. The message in the old adage, ‘If a tree falls in the forest, but no one is around to hear it, does it make a sound?’ applies to research too. A discovery could be groundbreaking, but what is the use if the researcher can’t communicate this discovery to the rest of the world?

The structure of a final year student project in economics may vary depending on the specific requirements and guidelines of the program or institution. However, generally, the structure may include the following components:
1. Introduction: This section should introduce the topic of the project, provide background information on the research problem or question, and outline the purpose and objectives of the study.
2. Literature Review: This section should review relevant literature and research related to the topic of the project. The literature review should identify the gaps in knowledge or inconsistencies in the existing research and explain how the project aims to address these gaps.
3. Methodology: This section should describe the methods and procedures used to collect and analyze data. The methodology should be appropriate for the research question, and the data collection and analysis methods should be clearly explained.
4. Results: This section should present the findings of the research. The results should be presented in a clear and organized manner, using tables, graphs, and other visual aids to enhance understanding.
5. Discussion: This section should interpret the results of the research, explain their significance, and relate them back to the research question and objectives. This section should also discuss the limitations of the study and suggest avenues for further research.
6. Conclusion: This section should summarize the key findings of the research and reiterate the importance of the research question and objectives.
7. References: This section should include a list of all sources cited in the project.
Additionally, some projects may require an abstract, acknowledgments, and appendices. The specific requirements and structure of the project should be discussed with the supervising professor or department.

(3).

Sample size
The founder of modern statistics, Karl Pearson, once said that “the utility of all science consists alone in its method, not its material” [16]. Although the same method can be used in different studies, it is the details of methodological activities that define the quality of the work. The description of details and activities of study design can be found in several guidelines such as CONSORT [17] for clinical trials, STROBE [18] for observational studies, and ARRIVE [19] for animal studies.
One important point of these guidelines is the description of sample size estimation. As a norm, studies with inadequate sample size have low sensitivity (eg, power) to uncover a true association. It is not widely appreciated that underpowered studies often produce statistically significant and exaggerated findings, but the findings have low probability of reproducibility [20].
Therefore, a clear explanation of sample size estimation and rationale, including primary outcome, expected effect size, type I and type II error, greatly help readers to assess the reliability of study findings [21]. Unfortunately, many bone science authors do not report how they arrived at the sample size. Moreover, most laboratory studies are based on a small number of animals, but there is no quantitative justification of the sample size [22]. As a result, it is very difficult to interpret a study’s observed effect size in the absence of a hypothesized effect size that underlined the estimation of sample size.

Biases and confounders
In uncontrolled and non-randomized studies, the association between exposure and outcome can be misled by biases and confounders. The list of biases and confounders are extensive [23], and these biases are almost always present in uncontrolled studies. Among the list of biases, selection bias is a major threat. Selection bias can arise in studies where participants were drawn from a sample that is very different from the general population, and as a result, it may distort the true association between exposure and outcome. The diagram below (Fig. 1) shows a hypothetical association between an exposure and an outcome in a population with a correlation coefficient being r = −0.29 (P < 0.0001; left panel); however, if a subset of the population was selected for analysis (right panel) then the association is no longer statistically significant (r = −0.05; P = 0.72). Thus, studies in subgroup of patients or non-representative samples have a high risk of reaching a wrong conclusion.

Longitudinal data
In prospective cohort studies, individuals are repeatedly measured over time, enable the examination of individual evolution of outcome. The analysis of data from this type of study design is challenging, because (i) measurements within an individual are correlated, (ii) the duration between visits is different between individuals, and (iii) there are missing data. Some authors applied the analysis of variance to analyze such a longitudinal dataset, but this method cannot handle the difference in follow-up duration and missing data. If the within-subject correlation is not properly accounted for, it can lead to false positive findings and wrong confidence intervals [28]. Researchers are suggested to consider more modern methods such as generalized estimating equations [29] and the linear mixed effects model [30]. A major strength of these modern methods is that they can handle missing data while still accounting for variability within and between individuals.
Another common problem associated with longitudinal data analysis is the determination of rate of change for an individual. For studies that measure bone mineral density (BMD) before (denoted by
x
0
) and after (
x
1
) intervention, most researchers would calculate the percentage change as the difference between 2 measurements over the baseline measurement, ie,
(
x
1
−
x
0
)
/
x
0
×
100
, and then use the percentage change as a dependent variable for further analyses. Although this measure seems straightforward, it is not symmetric [31] and can result in misleading results [32].

Categorization of continuous variable
It is not uncommon to read bone research papers where the authors categorize continuous variables such as bone mineral density (BMD) into 2 distinct groups (eg, "osteporosis" and "non-osteoporosis"), or 3 groups (eg, osteoporosis, osteopenia, and normal), and then use the categorized variable as an exposure or an outcome for further analyses. While the World Health Organization’s recommended BMD classification [34] is appropriate for clinical/diagnostic purposes, it is a bad practice for scientific purpose.
It has been repeatedly shown that such a categorization is unnecessary and can distort an association [35]. Apart from the risk of misclassification, the obvious problem with categorization of continuous variables is the loss of information. In the case of dichotomization, for example, all individuals above or below the cut-point is treated equaly, yet their prognosis could be vastly different. Therefore, the loss of information is increased (ie, more severe) when the number of categories is reduced. Categorization also reduces the efficiency of adjustment for confounders. In linear models, a categorized risk factor removes only 67% of the confounder compared to when the continuous type of the variable is used [36].

Selection of ‘significant’ variables
In many studies, the aim is to identify a set of predictor variables that are independently associated with a continuous outcome (in multiple linear regression) or a binary outcome (in multiple logistic regression). In the presence of hundreds or thousands of variables of interest, the number of possible sets of variables (or models) can be very large. For instance, a study with 30 variables can generate at least 2∧30 = 1,073,741,824 possible models, and determining which models are associated with an outcome is quite a challenge.
Many researchers have traditionally used stepwise regression to select the ‘best model’. While stepwise regression is a popular method for selecting a relevant set of variables, it has serious deficiencies [37].

Over-fitting
Multivariable statistical model always runs the risk of being over-fitted, in the sense that the model is unnecessarily complex. When over-fitting happens, the model is not valid because it tries to explain the random part of the model rather than the association between variables. As a result, an over-fitting model may fit the data very well for a dataset at hand, but it fits poorly for a new and independent dataset.
Over-fitting often happens when the number of parameters in the model is greater than the number of events. There is a rule of thumb that each predictor in a multivariable model requires at least 10 events [42], but recent research has shown that this rule of thumb is simplistic. Theoretical studies show that the number of events in a multivariable prediction model is determined by (i) the incidence of disease, (ii) the number of risk factors, (iii) the proportion of variance explained, and (iv) shrinkage factor [43].

P-values
Much of scientific inference boils down to the interpretation of P-value. Since its inception in the 1920s, P-value has been ubiquitous in the scientific literature, such that it is sometimes considered a "passport for publication". Readers of biomedical research literature may have noticed that the interpretation of P-value in most papers was largely dichotomized into "significant" vs "non-significant", with P = 0.05 being the commonest threshold for declaring a discovery. In some not-so-extreme cases, researchers reach a conclusion of effect based on a finding with P = 0.04, but readily dismiss a result with P = 0.06 as a null effect. However, it is not widely appreciated that that P-values vary greatly between samples [45], such that a deletion or addition of a single observation can change the statistical significance of a finding. Therefore, the simple classification of finding into "significant" and "non-significant" based on the threshold of 0.05 is not encouraged. The conclusion of an effect should be based on full evidence, not limited to the levels of statistical significance alone.

Multiple testing, large sample size, and false discovery rate
In recent years, national registries have provided researchers with opportunities to test hundreds or thousands of hypotheses, with many more tests being unreported. As a norm, the more one searches, the more one discovers unexpected and false findings. It can be shown that the probability of false positive findings is an exponential function of the number of hypothesis tests. For instance, at the alpha level of 5%, a study testing for association between 50 risk factors and an outcome, there is a 92% probability that the study will find at least one ‘significant’ association, even if there is no association between any of the risk factors and the outcome. In genomic research, the P-value threshold of 5 × 10−8 has become a standard for common-variant genome wide association studies, but there is no such threshold for registry-based research. Researchers using registry based data are suggested to take measures (such as Bonferroni’s procedure or Tukey’s test) to adjust P values from multiple testing so that the nominal P-value is less than 0.05, and to report the false discovery ratio

(4). What is referencing

Referencing is how you acknowledge the source of the information you have used (referred to) in your work. It helps to make clear to the reader how you have used the work of others to develop your own ideas and arguments.
Whether you are quoting directly from a book, summarising an idea from a journal article, illustrating a point with an image, or paraphrasing an opinion from a newspaper article, you need to give credit to the original creator of the work.

Citation: this is an acknowledgement that you place in your writing at the point you have referred to someone else’s work.  It may be in the author-date format (e.g., Jones, 2020) or in numeric format
each citation should have a corresponding reference, which provides further details about the source of information you have used. This may include the creator’s name, date of publication, title of the work, publisher details and a URL if accessed online. References are usually placed at the end of your writing in a reference list.
Bibliography: this is another name for the list of references at the end of your document.  A reference list usually only contains references for material you have cited in your work.  A bibliography may also include references for materials you have read or consulted but not cited.

Referencing styles

There are four widely-used referencing styles or conventions. They are called the MLA (Modern Languages Association) system, the APA (American Psychological Association) system, the Harvard system, and the MHRA (Modern Humanities Research Association) system.
If you are producing essays for a particular institution or even a particular department make sure you know what system it is using. Your tutors may specify one of the four listed above or they may use another one entirely. Some departments will produce sheets explaining which system they want you to use.
You can also find detailed guides to these systems in your institution’s library or on the internet. The Modern Humanities Research Association also publish the MHRA Style Book which is available from bookshops like Blackwells for around a fiver.
The following sections give the important aspects of the four conventions. For more detail, you will need to look in some of the places I’ve suggested.
The MLA system is a parenthetical system: i.e. bracketed references in the body of your essay are linked to full length citations in the bibliography at the end of your essay. The bracket in the body of the essay contains only the author’s surname and the page number or numbers you are referring to. For example: There are a number of different referencing styles or conventions but there are four that are used most widely. (Kennedy, 17).
If your essay quotes from two or more works by the same author then the bracketed reference should include a shortened version of the title to indicate which book is being referred to. (Kennedy, New Relations, 26)
A bibliography compiled according to MLA conventions lists items alphabetically by the author’s last name. Each entry should include, in the following order: the author’s name in full, the title of the book, the place of publication, the publisher, and the date. For example: Kennedy, David. New Relations: The Refashioning of British Poetry 1980-1994. Bridgend: Seren, 1996. Pay attention to how the entry is punctuated as that is part of the system too.
The APA system is also a parenthetical system but the bracketed references in the body of your essay are: the author’s surname, the date of publication and the page or page numbers you are referring to. For example: There are a number of different referencing styles or conventions but there are four that are used most widely (Kennedy, 2003, p. 17). The reference always goes at the end of the sentence before the full stop.
A bibliography compiled according to APA conventions lists items alphabetically by the author’s last name. Each entry should include, in the following order: the author’s surname, their first initial, the date of publication in brackets, the title of the book, the place of publication and the publisher. For example: Kennedy, D. (1996) New Relations: The Refashioning of British Poetry 1980-1994. Bridgend: Seren. Again, pay attention to how the entry is punctuated as that is part of the system too.
The Harvard system is another parenthetical system and the bracketed references in the body of your essay are: the author’s surname and the date of publication. The list of works at the end of the essay is headed ‘References’. The works listed in it appear in alphabetical order by the author’s surname and follow the same format as the APA system.
The MHRA system does not use bracketed references in the body of an essay. Instead, superscript numbers like this 1 are linked to a sequence of notes which appear either at the foot of the page or in a section at the end of your essay.

Importance of research methods

Research methods play a crucial role in the design and execution of any research study. They provide a framework for gathering, analyzing, and interpreting data, and they determine the overall quality and validity of research findings. Research methods are the systematic procedures used by researchers to collect, analyze, and interpret data in a structured and rigorous manner. Here are some key reasons why research methods are essential for research design:
1. Validity and reliability: Research methods ensure that the data collected is valid and reliable. Validity refers to the accuracy and truthfulness of research findings, while reliability refers to the consistency and stability of research results. By using appropriate research methods, researchers can minimize biases and errors in data collection, analysis, and interpretation, thereby enhancing the validity and reliability of their findings.
2. Replicability and generalizability: Research methods enable other researchers to replicate and verify the results of a study, which enhances the credibility and robustness of research findings. Replicability refers to the ability of other researchers to reproduce the research methods and obtain similar results, while generalizability refers to the extent to which research findings can be applied to a broader population or context. By clearly specifying the research methods used, researchers can ensure that their study can be replicated by others and that their findings can be generalized to other settings or populations.
3. Ethical considerations: Research methods also help ensure that research is conducted in an ethical manner. Ethical considerations, such as informed consent, confidentiality, and protection of human subjects, are important in any research study. Proper research methods provide guidelines for addressing ethical issues and ensure that research is conducted in a responsible and ethical manner, protecting the rights and welfare of participants.
4. Precision and rigor: Research methods provide a systematic and structured approach to data collection and analysis, which promotes precision and rigor in research. By using appropriate research methods, researchers can minimize errors, biases, and confounding factors, and obtain accurate and meaningful results. Research methods also help researchers in data interpretation, allowing them to draw valid and reliable conclusions from their findings.
5. Suitability to research objectives: Research methods should be chosen based on the research objectives, research questions, and the nature of the research problem. Different research methods are suited to different types of research questions or problems. For example, quantitative methods are appropriate for research that aims to establish cause-and-effect relationships, while qualitative methods are suitable for exploring complex social phenomena or understanding human experiences. Choosing appropriate research methods ensures that the research design aligns with the research objectives and provides the necessary data to answer the research questions.
In conclusion, research methods are crucial for the design and implementation of a research study. They provide a systematic approach to data collection, analysis, and interpretation, ensure the validity and reliability of research findings, facilitate replication and generalization, address ethical considerations, and promote precision and rigor. Careful selection and application of appropriate research methods are essential for conducting high-quality research and generating meaningful and valid findings.

Name: Ogbuagu Chiamaka Rosita
Reg no: 2019/241915
Department: Economics department
Course code: Eco 391
Course title: Research Method

1.Qualities of a good researcher.
i. Result oriented/research oriented and resilient .
ii. Efficiency – that is achieving maximum productivity with minimum effort or time. Efficiency implies doing the right thing.
iii. Scientific- careful and using a system or method.
iv. Effective- that is successful in producing a desired or intended results.
v. Active- engaging or ready to engage in physically energetic pursuits
vi. Resourceful – having the ability to find quick skillful and clearer ways to dealing with new situations and overcome difficulties
vii. Creative- that is relating or involving the use of the imagination or original ideas to create something.
viii. Honest- that is being free of deceit,truthful and sincere.
ix. Economical – that is careful not to waste money or resources.
x. Reputable – held in good repute, honorable, respectable and estimable.

2, i. Title: Title of the research paper should be informative, and relevant to the research topic. The title shouldn’t contain more than 12 words, example of a title: Impact of household income on household expenditure in Nigeria
Ii. Abstract: The abstract provides a brief summary of the research paper, usually no more than 250 words. It should briefly describe the research problem, objectives, methods, results, and conclusions of the study.
iii. Introduction: This introduces the research problem, provides background information on the topic, and presents the research question or hypothesis. It may also include a literature review that reviews relevant research and establishes the context for the study. Literature Review provides a critical analysis of the existing literature on the research topic. It should identify the key debates, concepts, theories, and research findings related to the topic. The literature review should also highlight the gaps in the existing literature and explain how the study aims to contribute to the field.
iv. Methodology: This explains the methods and techniques used to collect and analyze the data. It should provide a clear description of the research design, sample size, data collection techniques, and statistical analysis.It should provide enough detail for the study to be replicated by other researchers.

v. Results: This section presents the findings of the research in a clear and concise manner, usually in the form of tables, figures of the results without interpretation or discussion, or other visual representations.
vi. Discussion: This section interprets the results, discusses their implications, and relates them to the research question or hypothesis. It may also compare the findings with previous research, identify limitations of the study, and suggest directions for future research.
vii. Conclusion: This section summarizes the main findings of the study and provides a concise conclusion based on the research results. It should avoid introducing new information and may include recommendations or implications for practice.
viii. References: This section lists all the sources that were cited in the research paper, following a specific citation style (such as APA, MLA, or Chicago).
ix. Appendices: This section includes any supplementary material that is not included in the main body of the paper, such as raw data, additional tables or figures, or research instruments used in the study.
Note that the organization and structure of a final year project may different depending on the specific requirements of the institution or program. Therefore, it is essential to consult the guidelines provided by the institution and the program to ensure that the research paper is structured appropriately.

3. i. Selection bias
ii. Generalization.
iii. Ethics.
iv. Sample size and power.
v. Reliability and validity.
vi. Data analysis and interpretation.
vii. Replicability and reproducibility.
i. Selection bias: Selection bias occurs when the sample used in a study is not representative of the population of interest, leading to inaccurate or biased results. To address selection bias, researchers can use random sampling techniques to ensure that every member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the study. This can help minimize the potential for selection bias and increase the generalizability of the findings.
ii. Generalizability: Generalizability refers to the extent to which research findings can be applied to other contexts beyond the specific research setting. One issue is that some research methods may not produce findings that are generalizable to other settings or populations. This issue can be resolved by using a sample that is representative of the target population and by using research methods that are appropriate for the specific research question.
iii. Ethics: Ethics refers to the principles and guidelines for conducting research in an ethical and responsible manner. One issue is that some research methods may raise ethical concerns, such as research that involves deception or harm to participants. This issue can be resolved by following ethical guidelines and obtaining informed consent from participants.

iv. Sample size and power: Sample size refers to the number of participants in a study, and power refers to the ability of a study to detect a statistically significant effect if it exists. Small sample sizes can result in low statistical power, increasing the likelihood of Type II errors (false negatives) and reducing the generalizability of the findings. Researchers can address this issue by conducting power analyses to determine the optimal sample size for their study, and by striving to recruit an adequate number of participants to ensure reliable and valid results.
v. Reliability and Validity: Reliability refers to the consistency of research findings over time and across different research settings, while validity refers to the accuracy of the research findings. One issue is that some research methods may sacrifice reliability for the sake of validity, and vice versa. This issue can be resolved by using multiple methods to triangulate findings and increase both reliability and validity.
vi. Data analysis and interpretation: Data analysis and interpretation can be complex, and different methods can yield different results. Researchers should carefully select appropriate statistical techniques, ensure that data are analyzed correctly, and interpret findings in light of their limitations. It is important to report findings transparently, including any limitations or potential biases, and to avoid overgeneralizing or making unsupported conclusions.
vii. Replicability and reproducibility: Replicability refers to the ability of other researchers to reproduce the findings of a study using the same methods and data, while reproducibility refers to the ability to obtain similar results using different methods or data. Replicability and reproducibility are critical for establishing the validity and reliability of research findings. To promote replicability and reproducibility, researchers should provide clear and detailed descriptions of their methods, share their data and materials, and use open science practices such as pre-registration and data sharing. Additionally, peer review and independent replication studies can help validate research findings and identify any potential issues with methodology.

4. Referencing is also a way to give credit to the writers from whom you have borrowed words and ideas. By citing the work of a particular scholar, you acknowledge and respect the intellectual property rights of that researcher. Referencing allows you to acknowledge the contribution of other writers and researchers in your work. Any university assignments that draw on the ideas, words or research of other writers must contain citations. Referencing is acknowledging and citing sources used in academic writing, giving credit to original authors, allowing verification, upholding academic integrity, and enabling further exploration.
Referencing methods:
i. APA
ii. MLA
iii. Chicago style
iv. Havard style
v. IEEE
i. APA (American Psychological Association) Style: This referencing style is commonly used in the social sciences and is known for its emphasis on author-date in-text citations and a detailed reference list at the end of the document. Example in-text citation: (Smith, 2019, p. 42) Example reference list entry: Smith, J. (2019). Title of the article. Journal of Religion, 25(3), 38-52.
ii. MLA (Modern Language Association) Style: This referencing style is commonly used in the humanities, especially in literature, arts, and humanities disciplines. It uses author-page in-text citations and a Works Cited list at the end of the document. Example in-text citation: (Collins 56) Example Works Cited entry: Collins, R. Title of the book. Publisher, 2021.
iii. Chicago Style: This referencing style is commonly used in history, arts, and social sciences. It has two variations: the Notes-Bibliography System, which uses footnotes or endnotes for in-text citations and a bibliography at the end, and the Author-Date System, which uses author-date in-text citations and a reference list. Example footnotes citation: ^1Smith, John. Title of the book. Publisher, 2017. Example Author-Date citation: (Cyprian 2017)
iv. Harvard Style: This referencing style is commonly used in the sciences and social sciences. It uses author-date in-text citations and a reference list at the end of the document. Example in-text citation: (Smith 2016) Example reference list entry: Smith, J. (2016). Title of the article. Journal of Business, 45(2), 123-145.
v. IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Style: This referencing style is commonly used in engineering, computer science, and other technical fields. It uses numeric in-text citations in square brackets and a numbered reference list at the end of the document. Example in-text citation: [1] Example reference list entry: [1] Smith, J. Title of the article. IEEE Transactions on Engineering, 2015, 12(3), 456-467.

The significance of referencing in the design of a research proposal.
Research is a careful inquiry or examination to discover new information or relationships and to expand and to verify the existing knowledge. Referencing allows you to acknowledge and cite the sources of information or ideas that you have used to support your research proposal. This helps establish the credibility and reliability of your proposal by demonstrating that it is based on existing research and scholarly work. By referencing relevant sources, you can provide evidence and support for the research questions, hypotheses, or claims made in your proposal. Referencing allows you to back up your arguments with authoritative sources, which enhances the validity and robustness of your proposal. Referencing helps you avoid plagiarism by properly citing the sources you have used, giving credit to the original authors, and upholding academic integrity and ethical research practices. Plagiarism, which is the unethical or unauthorized use of others’ work as one’s own, is a serious academic offense. Referencing provides a comprehensive list of sources that can serve as a valuable resource for other researchers who may be interested in your topic. It allows them to further explore the literature, validate your findings, and build upon your research. Proper referencing also facilitates the peer-review process, where reviewers can verify the accuracy and appropriateness of the sources cited in your proposal. Referencing is significant to the design of a research proposal as it establishes credibility, supports the validity of arguments, avoids plagiarism, upholds academic integrity, and enables further research. Proper referencing is an essential aspect of research proposal writing, ensuring that your work is transparent, credible, and aligned with the standards of academic integrity.

ugwoke Michael-mary ikechukwu
2019/248716
Economics
ugwokemichael109@gmail.com
Number 1
What qualifies a researcher as competent, first?
driven by outcomes
Efficiency is the ability to produce more with less effort.
scientific: thorough and methodical; employs a system
Being effective means acting morally.
Active denotes involvement or readiness. Being resourceful involves being able to find rapid solutions to issues and devise improved ways to handle novel circumstances.
Being creative is sometimes referred to as being inventive or having original thoughts.
Honest refers to being sincere, accurate, and without lying.
economical means being careful not to waste materials or money.
Reputable adjectives include esteem, honor, etc.
Number 2
The structure and content of sections and subsections in a research report may vary depending on the specific requirements of the academic or publication norms, the type of research being done, and the author’s preferences. A research paper may generally have the sections and subsections indicated below:
1. Title: Included in this section, the title of the research paper should be brief, informative, and relevant to the subject of the study.
2. Abstract: This section provides a concise summary of the research endeavor in no more than 250 words. It should briefly summarize the research topic, objectives, methods, results, and conclusions.
3. Introduction: This section provides background information on the research problem as well as the research question or hypothesis. There may also be a review of the relevant literature that provides context for the study and summarizes relevant studies.
4. Methods: In this section, the methods used to collect the study’s data, the subjects, and the research design are all covered. It should provide enough details to let other researchers carry out a comparable investigation.
5. Results: The research findings are presented in this section, often with the use of tables, figures, or other visual aids. It should give the results in a straightforward, brief manner, without interpretation or discussion.
6. Discussion: In this section, the results are interpreted, their implications are evaluated, and their relation to the thesis or research topic is discussed. It might also draw attention to the study’s weaknesses, compare the results to those of other studies, and offer prospective paths for further research.
7. Conclusion: Based on the research results, this section provides a concise synopsis of the study’s main conclusions. It may provide suggestions or practice-related repercussions, but it shouldn’t offer any brand-new knowledge.
8. References: All of the sources used in the research paper are included in this section, which follows a certain reference format (such as APA, MLA, or Chicago).
9. Appendices: This section includes any supplementary details not provided in the main text of the article, such as raw data, additional tables or figures, or research instruments used in the study.
It’s important to keep in mind that the format and organization of a research paper can alter depending on the requirements of the intended publication or the author’s preferences. Always refer to the particular guidelines provided by your institution or the planned publication when structuring your research article.
Number 3
1. Selection bias: This phenomenon generates bias in the results, which may be incorrect, when the sample used in a study is not representative of the population of interest. By ensuring that each person in the population has an equal chance of taking part in the study, researchers can use random sampling techniques to remove selection bias. This can reduce the likelihood of selection bias and increase the generalizability of the results.
2. Confounding variables: In a study, confounding variables can affect how the independent and dependent variables relate to one another, leading to erroneous or wrong results. To account for their effects and lessen confounding variables, researchers can use techniques like matching, stratification, or statistical control. In order to establish cause-and-effect relationships and account for confounding factors, randomized controlled trials (RCTs) in which participants are randomly assigned to various groups can be helpful.
3. Inaccurate or inconsistent measurement: Inaccurate or inconsistent measurement can lead to inaccurate results. Researchers can lessen measurement error by using reliable and valid measurement tools, conducting pilot testing to enhance measurement methodologies, and making sure that data collection procedures are uniform and well-documented. By evaluating the same variable using various methods or measures, the results’ dependability can also be increased.
4. Chicago Style: This referencing style, which has two variations, is frequently used in the social sciences, the arts, and history. The Author-Date System uses author-date in-text citations and a reference list, while the Notes-Bibliography System uses footnotes or endnotes for in-text citations and a bibliography at the end.
5. There may be ethical issues with the study design, such as getting informed consent, protecting participant privacy and confidentiality, and avoiding harm. Researchers can resolve these issues by abiding by generally known ethical principles and obtaining ethics committee or institutional review board (IRB) permission if needed. Informed consent should be obtained from each participant, and measures should be taken to protect their rights and welfare throughout the research process.
6. Data analysis and interpretation can be challenging procedures, and different methods may result in different results. Researchers must carefully select appropriate statistical techniques, ensure that data are appropriately evaluated, and interpret findings while taking into account any inherent limitations. It is essential to disclose findings transparently and to refrain from generalizing or making erroneous assumptions. Disclosure of any restrictions or potential biases is part of this.
7. Replicability and reproducibility: Replicability is the capacity to produce comparable results using different techniques or sources of information, whereas reproducibility is the capacity of other researchers to reproduce the results of a study using the same techniques and sources of information. Replication and reproducibility are crucial for demonstrating the reliability and validity of research findings. To promote replication and reproducibility, researchers should share their data and resources, provide detailed explanations of their methods, and use open scientific strategies like pre-registration and data sharing. The validity of study findings and the detection of methodology flaws can also be aided by peer review and independent replication studies.
In conclusion, issues in research methodology may have an impact on the reliability, validity, and generalizability of findings. Researchers can deal with these issues by using appropriate sampling techniques, confounding variable control, measurement error reduction, ethical considerations, analyses with sufficient power, appropriate data analysis and interpretation techniques, and the promotion of replicable and reproducible research practices.
Number 4
Referencing is the process of citing and identifying sources used in academic writing to preserve academic integrity, give original writers their due credit, enable verification, and promote further study.
1 The American Psychological Association (APA) 1. The social sciences frequently employ this referencing style, which is distinguished by an emphasis on author-date in-text citations and an extensive reference list at the conclusion of the paper. In-text citation illustration 2019 Smith, p. 42 A sample citation would be Smith, J. (2019). The article’s title. 38–52 in Journal of Psychology, 25(3).
2. MLA (Modern Language Association) Style: This referencing style is commonly used in the humanities, especially in literature, arts, and humanities disciplines. It uses author-page in-text citations and a Works Cited list at the end of the document. Example in-text citation: (Johnson 56) Example Works Cited entry: Johnson, R. Title of the book. Publisher, 2018.
3. Chicago Style: This referencing style is commonly used in history, arts, and social sciences. It has two variations: the Notes-Bibliography System, which uses footnotes or endnotes for in-text citations and a bibliography at the end, and the Author-Date System, which uses author-date in-text citations and a reference list. Example footnotes citation: ^1Smith, John. Title of the book. Publisher, 2017. Example Author-Date citation: (Smith 2017)
4. Harvard Style: This referencing style is commonly used in the sciences and social sciences. It uses author-date in-text citations and a reference list at the end of the document. Example in-text citation: (Smith 2016) Example reference list entry: Smith, J. (2016). Title of the article. Journal of Science, 45(2), 123-145.
5. IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Style: This referencing style is commonly used in engineering, computer science, and other technical fields. It uses numeric in-text citations in square brackets and a numbered reference list at the end of the document. Example in-text citation: [1] Example reference list entry: [1] Smith, J. Title of the article. IEEE Transactions on Engineering, 2015, 12(3), 456-467.
Note: These are just examples of commonly used referencing styles. It is important to refer to the specific guidelines of the citation style required by your institution or publication for accurate referencing.

1. Establishing the credibility and reliability of the proposal: Referencing allows you to acknowledge and cite the sources of information or ideas that you have used to support your research proposal. This helps establish the credibility and reliability of your proposal by demonstrating that it is based on existing research and scholarly work.
2. Demonstrating the extent of literature review: A research proposal typically includes a literature review, which is an overview of relevant existing research on the topic. Referencing enables you to provide proper credit to the authors of the works you have reviewed, and helps demonstrate the extent of your literature review by citing the sources you have consulted.
3. Supporting the validity and robustness of the proposal: By referencing relevant sources, you can provide evidence and support for the research questions, hypotheses, or claims made in your proposal. Referencing allows you to back up your arguments with authoritative sources, which enhances the validity and robustness of your proposal.
4. Avoiding plagiarism and upholding academic integrity: Plagiarism, which is the unethical or unauthorized use of others’ work as one’s own, is a serious academic offense. Referencing helps you avoid plagiarism by properly citing the sources you have used, giving credit to the original authors, and upholding academic integrity and ethical research practices.
5. Enabling further research and validation: Referencing provides a comprehensive list of sources that can serve as a valuable resource for other researchers who may be interested in your topic. It allows them to further explore the literature, validate your findings, and build upon your research. Proper referencing also facilitates the peer-review process, where reviewers can verify the accuracy and appropriateness of the sources cited in your proposal.
In summary, referencing is significant to the design of a research proposal as it establishes credibility, supports the validity of arguments, avoids plagiarism, upholds academic integrity, and enables further research. Proper referencing is an essential aspect of research proposal writing, ensuring that your work is transparent, credible, and aligned with the standards of academic integrity

Question two
Title: This section includes the title of the research paper, which should be concise, informative, and relevant to the research topic.
2. Abstract: This section provides a brief summary of the research paper, usually no more than 250 words. It should briefly describe the research problem, objectives, methods, results, and conclusions of the study.
3. Introduction: This section introduces the research problem, provides background information on the topic, and presents the research question or hypothesis. It may also include a literature review that reviews relevant research and establishes the context for the study.
4. Methods: This section describes the research design, participants, data collection procedures, and data analysis methods used in the study. It should provide enough detail for the study to be replicated by other researchers.
5. Results: This section presents the findings of the research, usually in the form of tables, figures, or other visual representations. It should provide a clear and concise description of the results without interpretation or discussion.

Chapter four
What is referencing? Referencing is how you acknowledge the source of the information you have used (referred to) in your work. It helps to make clear to the reader how you have used the work of others to develop your own ideas and arguments.

5 referencing methods
1)The MLA system is a parenthetical system: i.e. bracketed references in the body of your essay are linked to full length citations in the bibliography at the end of your essay. The bracket in the body of the essay contains only the author’s surname and the page number or numbers you are referring to. For example: There are a number of different referencing styles or conventions but there are four that are used most widely.If your essay quotes from two or more works by the same author then the bracketed reference should include a shortened version of the title to indicate which book is being referred to.

2)The APA system is also a parenthetical system but the bracketed references in the body of your essay are: the author’s surname, the date of publication and the page or page numbers you are referring to. For example: There are a number of different referencing styles or conventions but there are four that are used most widely (Kennedy, 2003, p. 17). The reference always goes at the end of the sentence before the full stop.
A bibliography compiled according to APA conventions lists items alphabetically by the author’s last name. Each entry should include, in the following order: the author’s surname, their first initial, the date of publication in brackets, the title of the book, the place of publication and the publisher. For example: Kennedy, D. (1996) New Relations: The Refashioning of British Poetry 1980-1994. Bridgend: Seren. Again, pay attention to how the entry is punctuated as that is part of the system too.

3)The Harvard system is another parenthetical system and the bracketed references in the body of your essay are: the author’s surname and the date of publication. The list of works at the end of the essay is headed ‘References’. The works listed in it appear in alphabetical order by the author’s surname and follow the same format as the APA system.

4) The MHRA system does not use bracketed references in the body of an essay. Instead, superscript numbers like this 1 are linked to a sequence of notes which appear either at the foot of the page or in a section at the end of your essay. The note contains the full reference for the book or article you are referring to. Here’s what an MHRA note reference looks like

5) IEEE style
The Institute for Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) is a professional organization supporting many branches of engineering, computer science, and information technology. In addition to publishing journals, magazines, and conference proceedings, IEEE also makes many standards for a wide variety of industries.
IEEE citation style includes in-text citations, numbered in square brackets, which refer to the full citation listed in the reference list at the end of the paper.

1. Characteristics of a good researcher includes
a. Intellectual curiosity: A good researcher must be intellectual curious, which means that he undertakes deep thinking and enquiry of the things and situations around him or her.
b. Prudence: A good researcher is careful to conduct his study at the right time and place, efficiently and economically.
c. Healthy criticism: A good researcher should be ready to accept healthy criticism from his it her readers .A good researcher should also be critical and not easily accept certain results or outcome with out verification.
d. Intellectual honesty: An intelligent researcher is honest to collect data or facts in order to arrive at honest results.
e. Intellectual creativity: A productive and resourceful investigator/ researcher always creates new approaces.
2.Chapter One: Introduction
Chapter one is the introduction of your project. Here, you need to give an overview of what the project is all about. It provides information on the problem that your research will address. By reading your introduction, anyone should get a clear understanding of your research project, although not in detail. The rest of your project will build on the information you provide in your introduction. Here is the format your introduction will typically follow:

Background of the study: This gives an assessment of the research topic, current information about the topic, and similar research that has already been done.
Statement of the problem: This clearly states the issue that the research will address or improve upon. It should show what others have done and what the research intends to do, and flow logically to the research objectives.
Research objectives: This is a summary of what the researcher hopes to achieve from the study. It clearly shows the aims and objectives of the research; both general and specific.
Research questions: This is the query that the research is centred on. The questions that the research will answer. It should be straightforward and flow logically from the research objectives.
Research Hypothesis: This is a statement of expectation or prediction that will be tested by the research. It predicts the possible outcome of the study.
Significance of the study: The significance of the study is a description of the importance of the study, the impact it will have on existing learning, and how it will be of benefit to others.
Scope of the study: This shows the parameters within which the research will be done. It includes where the research will be carried out, the reason for choosing that place, and the timeframe of the research.
Definition of terms: This provides a standardized definition of the keywords used in the study, and how they are used.
Chapter Two: Literature Review
Literature relevant to the title and the variables of the study are subjected to review. The review of literature is done by quoting or citing what previous researchers and scholars have done relative to the area of the study. The review could also take a turn of critically reviewing previous studies carried out by previous researchers. Awotedu, A.W. (2015, p.9).

Moreover, “It is required critically to analysed published works (theoretical articles and research studies) related to your problem statement and research questions. It is also the section in which you present the underlying theoretical framework of your study.
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Theoretical Framework

In final project report, most often, Students(BSc, HND, MBA) misunderstood or find the it difficult to curl theoretical framework for their project.

Two key words ‘theoretical’ and ‘framework’. ‘Theoretical’ (or theory) is the interaction of two or more variables (or factors) telling a story about a phenomenon while providing an insight about the phenomenon (Anfara and Mertx, 2009)

This refers to a theory that has been propounded by previous scholars or authors. Research student is to find out a theory that is most suitable and adequately captures the variables as reflected in the research questions and hypotheses of your final project report.

Sample: Lower interest rate will boost small scale enterprises in the community.

2.2 Conceptual Framework: This in most cases is usually presented diagrammatically. Except there is a conceptual framework found to be appropriate that could be adapted for a study, it is usually constructed by the researcher and not other scholars work.
Empirical Framework: The empirical framework refers to the reports of previous studies that have been carried out by other researchers. Final year project researcher need to study other related project.
2.4 Summary of Literature Review
This section summarize review and reports observed. And conclude by explaining how the theoretical framework and the review leads to the problem statement and the research questions that will be addressed.
Chapter Three: Methodology
In this section on Methodology for FYP in your research proposal, explain how you intend to collect data to answer the Research Questions or Hypotheses stipulated in Chapter One : Introduction.
Chapter four
The chapter four of your final year project is typically the data presentation and analysis (results and discussion). After carrying out your research and writing your chapters one to three, it’s important that you analyze the data obtained from your research, show the results, and discuss your findings.
You should begin this chapter by restating the research problem as stated in chapter one. Then explain each research question and state the results obtained. Your results should be presented using tables, figures or other mediums of summarizing data. Carefully choose your tables and figures. Note that for some studies, you may state all your raw data in this chapter, while for other studies, it may be more appropriate to have the major part of your raw data in the appendix section.
In a Qualitative Research, the title of this chapter may be called: Results of Study or Analysis and Results. Regardless of the chapter title, the most important thing is that this chapter analyses the data obtained and displays the results. You should also use graphs and charts to display your results. You’ll need to discuss your results and compare them to those obtained by previous researchers. The applications of your results should also be explained.
Chapter five
This chapter usually has the title, ‘Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations’ but may vary depending on your institution. So, confirm with your supervisor. By this time in your project, you should have completed your study, and are now writing your final report. Ideally, start this chapter by once again stating the purpose of your study. Summarize the entire project from chapters one to four to remind your readers about what your study is all abouty.
3. Possible Methodological Limitations

Sample size — the number of the units of analysis you use in your study is dictated by the type of research problem you are investigating. Note that, if your sample size is too small, it will be difficult to find significant relationships from the data, as statistical tests normally require a larger sample size to ensure a representative distribution of the population and to be considered representative of groups of people to whom results will be generalized or transferred. Note that sample size is generally less relevant in qualitative research if explained in the context of the research problem.
Lack of available and/or reliable data — a lack of data or of reliable data will likely require you to limit the scope of your analysis, the size of your sample, or it can be a significant obstacle in finding a trend and a meaningful relationship. You need to not only describe these limitations but provide cogent reasons why you believe data is missing or is unreliable. However, don’t just throw up your hands in frustration; use this as an opportunity to describe a need for future research based on designing a different method for gathering data.
Lack of prior research studies on the topic — citing prior research studies forms the basis of your literature review and helps lay a foundation for understanding the research problem you are investigating. Depending on the currency or scope of your research topic, there may be little, if any, prior research on your topic. Before assuming this to be true, though, consult with a librarian! In cases when a librarian has confirmed that there is little or no prior research, you may be required to develop an entirely new research typology [for example, using an exploratory rather than an explanatory research design]. Note again that discovering a limitation can serve as an important opportunity to identify new gaps in the literature and to describe the need for further research.
Measure used to collect the data — sometimes it is the case that, after completing your interpretation of the findings, you discover that the way in which you gathered data inhibited your ability to conduct a thorough analysis of the results. For example, you regret not including a specific question in a survey that, in retrospect, could have helped address a particular issue that emerged later in the study. Acknowledge the deficiency by stating a need for future researchers to revise the specific method for gathering data.
Self-reported data — whether you are relying on pre-existing data or you are conducting a qualitative research study and gathering the data yourself, self-reported data is limited by the fact that it rarely can be independently verified. In other words, you have to the accuracy of what people say, whether in interviews, focus groups, or on questionnaires, at face value. However, self-reported data can contain several potential sources of bias that you should be alert to and note as limitations. These biases become apparent if they are incongruent with data from other sources. These are: (1) selective memory [remembering or not remembering experiences or events that occurred at some point in the past]; (2) telescoping [recalling events that occurred at one time as if they occurred at another time]; (3) attribution [the act of attributing positive events and outcomes to one’s own agency, but attributing negative events and outcomes to external forces]; and, (4) exaggeration [the act of representing outcomes or embellishing events as more significant than is actually suggested from other data].
4. Referencing allows you to acknowledge the contribution of other writers and researchers in your work. Any university assignments that draw on the ideas, words or research of other writers must contain citations.
Harvard style: Harvard referencing uses in-text citations, in an author-date format. This means that when citing a source in your work you will include: author(s) or editor(s) surname or family name. year of publication. page number(s) if needed. An example of a reference for a book: Ronson, J. (2012). The psychopath test: a journey through the madness industry. London: Picador.
APA is a style that uses in-text citations, in an author-date format. This means that when citing a source in your work you will include: author(s) or editor(s) surname or family name. year of publication. page number(s) if needed: Ronson, J. (2012). The psychopath test: a journey through the madness industry. Picador.
Chicago style is an “author-date” style, so the citation in the text consists of the author(s) name and year of publication given wholly or partly in round brackets. Use only the surname of the author(s) and the year of publication. Include page, chapter or section numbers, preceded by a comma, if you need to be specific:
The MLA (Modern Language Association) style is most commonly used to write papers and cite sources within the liberal arts and humanities. The following examples are based on the MLA Handbook (9th ed., 2021).MLA uses a two-part system of citation: In-text citation: short parenthetical citations, embedded within the text of the essay itself. A “Works Cited” list that follows up these references with fuller details of the sources, in an alphabetically ordered list. This includes both primary and secondary texts you used in writing your assignment. All entries in the Works Cited page must correspond to the works cited in your main text.

Ezera Nnenna blessing
2017/249338
Economics/psycology

Name: Chidobelu Yonna Raluchukwu
Reg No: 2019/244261
Department: Economics (Major)

1. Characteristics of a Good Researcher
The characteristics of a good researcher includes:
A. Curiosity:  A curious mind and an ability to look at things from different perspectives is what makes a good researcher better. Good researchers are observant about the world around them and open to new ideas and possibilities; they are always asking questions and looking for answers. This ability to see the bigger picture while being curious about the smaller details is what makes a good researcher explore new ideas, test hypotheses, and make new discoveries.

B. Critical thinking:  Successful researchers can think critically about the information they gather while reading about new developments in their own and related fields. This is an essential characteristic of a good researcher. Instead of simply accepting existing knowledge as fact, you need to have the ability to analyze and evaluate the validity and reliability of sources, consider alternative explanations for results you observe, and find connections between seemingly unrelated concepts.

C. Creativity:  The qualities of a good researcher do not just include curiosity and critical thinking, but also thinking creatively when it comes to problem solving. Nurturing the ability to think outside the box and come up with novel and often unconventional solutions to challenges you face is how to become a better researcher. This allows you to come up with more ground-breaking research studies and results addressing issues that others might easily miss.

D. Objectivity:  Nurturing preconceived notions is detrimental to research. Avoid temptations to make inconclusive statements or introduce personal biases into research, which will impact your research and standing in the long run. Remember, building essential qualities of a good researcher means consciously keeping aside personal preferences and biases and applying sound judgement to your work even when under pressure.

E. Collaborative spirit:  An important characteristic of a good researcher is being able to work well with others. With a shift toward more collaborative research, successful researchers often connect with and work with peers to come up with innovative approaches to research problems. While sharing ideas and partnering with other researchers can lead to breakthroughs and boost your researcher reputation, it also opens the door for your work to reach and potentially benefit a wider audience.

F. Communication skills:  An added strength of a good researcher is being able to communicate your findings clearly and effectively, which is a key contributor to your success. This is applicable when writing your manuscripts, presenting at conferences, as well as when seeking funding for your work. Good researchers can explain their research to both specialists and non-specialists to ensure their work is understood and appreciated by a wider audience.

G. Attention to detail:  One of the key qualities of a good researcher is being meticulous in your work. Researchers need to pay attention to every detail, from the design of an experiment to the analysis of data, and further in writing and submitting their manuscript for publication. This crucial characteristic can help you ensure your research is accurate, testable, and reliable, and also gives your manuscripts a better chance of acceptance.

H. Time management:  To understand what are the characteristics of a good researcher, first ask yourself if you manage your time well. Most successful researchers organize, prioritize, and optimize their time efficiently, allowing them to not only keep up with their responsibilities but also make time for personal tasks. If you’re being pulled in different directions or overwhelmed with trying to manage your research, stay updated on your research reading, or meeting your writing deadlines, consider honing this skill as a prerequisite to becoming a good researcher.

I. Persistence & flexibility:  Research can be a long, difficult process with several hurdles and changes along the way. One of the key requirements to becoming a good researcher is being able to adapt to new technologies and changing circumstances and persevere despite setbacks and challenges that inevitably arise. Developing the qualities of a good researcher means anticipating problems, adjusting plans to tackle challenges head-on, and being patient while moving forward toward achieving your goals.

J. Focus on self-care:  Anxiety, stress, and mental health issues are common among academics. Successful researchers are better equipped to manage this by adopting a healthy balanced lifestyle. Understanding what works for you can also improve your efficiency and productivity. Being aware of your strengths and weaknesses and using this to your advantage is key to becoming a good researcher.

2. The Structure of a final year project/ report.
The report can be divided into three major sections, the introduction, the main body, and the summary. The introduction informs everyone inside and outside the project team of the project definition and its significance. It will often contain historical, technical, and financial information that provides a context for the efforts associated with the project. It should “set the stage” for the main body of the report.

The main body of the report presents the technical progress achieved by the team. The nature of the accomplishments disclosed will be determined by the nature of the project. Since this is a technical project, the majority of the accomplishments will be technical in nature, but any developments that will significantly affect the direction or outcome of the project are reported in this section.

The summary section provides the reader with a listing of the major accomplishments and the conclusions that the team believes should be drawn from the report. Even though it sounds redundant, since you have already made these points in the main body of the report, it is important to restate things that were presented. It is your final opportunity to remind the reader of all of the team’s accomplishments and to put them in their proper perspective.

Here are some tips for delivering a great final year report/ project
A. Choose Your Topic Wisely
Choosing the right final year project topic holds paramount importance. This decision can be overwhelming with the number of options available today. Choose a topic related to your field of study that is of great interest to you.
Additionally, it is advised that you have a topic that has a powerful motive. For instance, a project that helps humankind will truly be unmatched. Another factor to keep in mind is to choose topics that aren’t very common.

B. Choose the Right Project Guide
Project guides play a major role in defining the success of a final year project. He/She should be an excellent mentor and a subject matter expert. It will be beneficial if your guide is carrying out research in the same field or if he/she has already published research papers in the past. This way, you can add an extra weightage to your project by utilizing your guide’s experience and knowledge.
In addition to choosing the right project guide, you must also make sure to choose the right set of team members to work with if it is a group project. Choosing the right project members who are cooperative and equally hard-working is very crucial.

C. Plan Your Project Well
As generic as it sounds, it is that important. Once you have finalized your project topic and the guide, you have to make extensive plans to go about the entire process. It would be best to have a project plan covering the goal, research, requirements, cost estimations, implementation, and presentation.
Make sure to create a plan, keeping in mind the deadlines; this will help you streamline the process and, in turn, save you from last-minute confusion. Breaking down your project into phases and executing them is the right approach. A strong project plan can yield better results than one can imagine.

D. Read the Existing Research Papers
Several advantages come by if you read the existing research papers that are closely related to your project. For instance, you will get an idea of what content is already available and what is lacking. This way, you can certify that your project has additional information from the existing ones.
Reading research papers will also give you ideas, a strong foundation, and an outline of how you should go about with your final year project.

E. Publish a Research Paper
Publishing a research paper is one of the few ways you can add credibility to your final year project. This gives you more confidence while presenting your project. Many times, research papers also open doors to new opportunities.
After you complete your research paper, make sure to reference it well, proofread, and edit it. Check your paper for repetitions, grammatical errors, and quotation rules obeyed, etc. Research papers add a huge amount of value to your resume.

F. Implement and Test your Project
Before presenting your project, you need to implement and test it. By doing so, you can fix errors, if any. Using the trial and error method, you should continue the process.
You can use some test cases to check if your project yields the expected results. Ensure that the result is aligned with your project goal, and there shouldn’t be any deviations.

G. Presentation and Visualization
It is pointless to have slogged for your project if you cannot deliver your project well on the final day. Hence, it is of supreme importance that you are well-versed with your project and make a good, in-depth, and interactive presentation on it.
Using data visualization in your presentation will be beneficial as the project results will be conveyed concisely. During the course of your presentation, be prepared to carefully and calmly answer the questions asked by the panel. You can master the art of presentation with a considerable amount of practice.

3. Issues associated with Methodology debate and their solutions.
The methodology debate in research refers to the ongoing discussion about the appropriate methods and techniques for conducting research. Here are seven issues associated with this debate and how they can be solved.

A. Reliability and Validity: Reliability refers to the consistency of research findings over time and across different research settings, while validity refers to the accuracy of the research findings. One issue is that some research methods may sacrifice reliability for the sake of validity, and vice versa. This issue can be resolved by using multiple methods to triangulate findings and increase both reliability and validity.

B. Subjectivity: Subjectivity refers to the extent to which research findings are influenced by the researcher’s personal biases, beliefs, or assumptions. One issue is that some research methods may be more susceptible to subjectivity than others. This issue can be resolved by using research methods that minimize the influence of the researcher’s subjectivity, such as objective measures and standardized protocols.

C. Practicality: Practicality refers to the feasibility of using certain research methods given the resources and time constraints of the research project. One issue is that some research methods may be too expensive, time-consuming, or complex to use. This issue can be resolved by selecting research methods that are appropriate for the specific research question and that can be feasibly implemented within the constraints of the project.

D. Generalizability: Generalizability refers to the extent to which research findings can be applied to other contexts beyond the specific research setting. One issue is that some research methods may not produce findings that are generalizable to other settings or populations. This issue can be resolved by using a sample that is representative of the target population and by using research methods that are appropriate for the specific research question.

E. Ethics: Ethics refers to the principles and guidelines for conducting research in an ethical and responsible manner. One issue is that some research methods may raise ethical concerns, such as research that involves deception or harm to participants. This issue can be resolved by following ethical guidelines and obtaining informed consent from participants.

F. Replicability: Replicability refers to the ability of other researchers to replicate research findings using the same methods and procedures. One issue is that some research methods may not be easily replicable, either due to lack of clarity in the methods or lack of availability of resources. This issue can be resolved by clearly documenting research procedures and making resources available to other researchers.

G. Bias: Bias refers to the influence of researcher or participant factors that can impact research findings. One issue is that some research methods may be more susceptible to bias than others. This issue can be resolved by using research methods that minimize bias, such as randomized controlled trials or double-blind studies.

4. What is referencing?
Referencing is how you acknowledge the source of the information you have used (referred to) in your work. It helps to make clear to the reader how you have used the work of others to develop your own ideas and arguments.
Whether you are quoting directly from a book, summarising an idea from a journal article, illustrating a point with an image, or paraphrasing an opinion from a newspaper article, you need to give credit to the original creator of the work.

Referencing methods:
A. MLA (Modern Language Association) Style: This referencing style is commonly used in the humanities, especially in literature, arts, and humanities disciplines. It uses author-page in-text citations and a Works Cited list at the end of the document. Example in-text citation: (Johnson 56) Example Works Cited entry: Johnson, R. Title of the book. Publisher, 2018.

B. APA (American Psychological Association) Style: This referencing style is commonly used in the social sciences and is known for its emphasis on author-date in-text citations and a detailed reference list at the end of the document. Example in-text citation: (Smith, 2019, p. 42) Example reference list entry: Smith, J. (2019). Title of the article. Journal of Psychology, 25(3), 38-52.

C. IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Style: This referencing style is commonly used in engineering, computer science, and other technical fields. It uses numeric in-text citations in square brackets and a numbered reference list at the end of the document. Example in-text citation: [1] Example reference list entry: [1] Smith, J. Title of the article. IEEE Transactions on Engineering, 2015, 12(3), 456-467.

D. Harvard Style: This referencing style is commonly used in the sciences and social sciences. It uses author-date in-text citations and a reference list at the end of the document. Example in-text citation: (Smith 2016) Example reference list entry: Smith, J. (2016). Title of the article. Journal of Science, 45(2), 123-145.

E. Chicago Style: This referencing style is commonly used in history, arts, and social sciences. It has two variations: the Notes-Bibliography System, which uses footnotes or endnotes for in-text citations and a bibliography at the end, and the Author-Date System, which uses author-date in-text citations and a reference list. Example footnotes citation: ^1Smith, John. Title of the book. Publisher, 2017. Example Author-Date citation: (Smith 2017).

These are just examples of commonly used referencing styles. It is important to refer to the specific guidelines of the citation style required by your institution or publication for accurate referencing. The significance of referencing cannot be stressed enough. Referencing is an important part of academic work. It puts your work in context, demonstrates the breadth and depth of your research, and acknowledges other people’s work. You should reference whenever you use someone else’s idea.

name : Henry Victor Ifeanyichukwu
reg no : 2019/250111
Gmail: victorhenry274@gmail.com
, First, what makes a competent researcher?
driven by results
Efficiency means producing the most with the least amount of work.
scientific: methodical and careful; utilizing a system
Effectiveness is doing what is right.
Active means engaged or prepared to engage. Resourceful means able to quickly solve problems and create better ways to deal with new situations.
Being imaginative or coming up with novel ideas is referred to as being creative.
Honest means sincere, truthful, and free from deceit.
economical – mindful of not wasting resources or money
Reputable: respected, honorable, etc.
2, Depending on the precise criteria of the academic or publication guidelines, the type of research being done, and the author’s preferences, the format and content of sections and subsections in a research report may change. In general, a research paper might have the sections and subsections listed below:
A. Title: The title of the research paper is included in this area and should be succinct, informative, and pertinent to the study topic.
B. Abstract: In no more than 250 words, this section offers a succinct synopsis of the study work. It should succinctly outline the research question, goals, procedures, findings, and conclusions.
C. Introduction: This section contains the research question or hypothesis as well as background information on the study problem. A literature review that summarizes pertinent studies and sets the background for the study may also be included.
D. Methods: In this section, the study’s data gathering techniques, participants, and research design are all discussed. It ought to contain sufficient information to enable other researchers to conduct a similar study.
E. Results: In this section, the research results are presented, frequently with the use of tables, figures, or other visual aids. It should present the findings in a clear, concise manner without interpretation or debate.
F. Discussion: The findings are interpreted, their ramifications are addressed, and their applicability to the research question or hypothesis are discussed in this part. Additionally, it might highlight the study’s shortcomings, make comparisons between the findings and those of other studies, and suggest potential directions for future research.
G. Conclusion: Based on the research findings, this part offers a succinct summary of the key findings of the study. It may contain recommendations or practice-related consequences but should refrain from providing any new information.
H. References: This section, which adheres to a certain reference style (such as APA, MLA, or Chicago), includes all the sources that were used in the research paper.
I. Appendices: This section contains any additional information not covered in the main text of the publication, such as unprocessed data, extra tables or figures, or research tools utilized in the study.
It’s vital to remember that a research paper’s arrangement and structure can change based on the demands of the intended publication or the author’s preferences. When structuring your research paper, always refer to the precise instructions given by your institution or the intended publication.
3,A. Selection bias: When the sample employed in a study is not representative of the population of interest, this phenomenon causes bias in the results, which may be erroneous. Researchers can utilize random sampling methods to eliminate selection bias by making sure that every member of the population has an equal chance of becoming a part of the study. This can lessen the possibility of selection bias and improve the findings’ generalizability.
B. Confounding variables: Confounding variables are elements that may influence how the independent and dependent variables relate to one another in a study, producing erroneous or incorrect conclusions. Researchers can employ strategies like matching, stratification, or statistical control to take their impacts into account and reduce confounding variables. Additionally, performing randomized controlled trials (RCTs) in which participants are randomly assigned to various groups can assist in establishing cause-and-effect correlations and controlling for confounding variables.
C. Measuring inaccuracies or inconsistently: Measuring inaccuracies or inconsistently can produce results that are not accurate. By employing trustworthy and valid measurement tools, conducting pilot testing to improve measurement techniques, and making sure that data collection procedures are standardized and well-documented, researchers can reduce measurement error. The dependability of the results can also be improved by assessing the same variable using multiple measures or approaches.
D. Chicago Style: The social sciences, the arts, and history all frequently employ this referencing format. There are two types of it: the Author-Date System employs author-date in-text citations and a reference list, while the Notes-Bibliography System uses footnotes or endnotes for in-text citations and a bibliography at the end. Example of citation for footnotes: 1John Smith. The book’s title, published in 2017. Example of an author-date reference: (Smith 2017)
E, Ethical difficulties might arise in study technique, including obtaining informed consent, preserving participant privacy and confidentiality, and preventing injury. By adhering to accepted ethical standards and receiving approval from the appropriate institutional review boards (IRBs) or ethics committees, researchers can overcome these problems. All participants should give their informed consent, and precautions should be made to ensure their rights and welfare throughout the research process.
F. Data analysis and interpretation: These processes can be complicated, and various approaches may produce various outcomes. Researchers must choose acceptable statistical methods with care, verify that data are properly analyzed, and interpret results while keeping in mind any inherent limits. Transparency in reporting findings is crucial, as is avoiding overgeneralization or drawing unfounded conclusions. This includes disclosing any limits or potential biases.
G. Replicability and reproducibility: Replicability refers to the ability to generate similar results using alternative methods or data, whereas reproducibility refers to the ability of other researchers to replicate the findings of a study using the same methods and data. For proving the validity and dependability of research findings, replication and reproducibility are essential. Researchers should disclose their data and resources, give clear and thorough descriptions of their procedures, and employ open scientific techniques like pre-registration and data sharing in order to encourage replicability and reproducibility. Peer review and independent replication studies can also help validate study results and spot any methodology problems.
In conclusion, problems in research technique might affect the generalizability, validity, and reliability of results. Through the use of appropriate sampling strategies, confounding variable control, measurement error reduction, ethical considerations, sufficient power analyses, appropriate data analysis and interpretation strategies, and the promotion of replicable and reproducible research practices, researchers can address these problems.
4, Referencing is the process of citing and identifying sources used in academic writing in order to protect academic integrity, provide due credit to the original authors, allow for verification, and encourage additional research.
Reference techniques
A The American Psychological Association (APA) 1. The social sciences frequently employ this referencing style, which is distinguished by an emphasis on author-date in-text citations and an extensive reference list at the conclusion of the paper. In-text citation illustration 2019 Smith, p. 42 A sample citation would be Smith, J. (2019). The article’s title. 38–52 in Journal of Psychology, 25(3).
B. MLA (Modern Language Association) Style: This referencing style is commonly used in the humanities, especially in literature, arts, and humanities disciplines. It uses author-page in-text citations and a Works Cited list at the end of the document. Example in-text citation: (Johnson 56) Example Works Cited entry: Johnson, R. Title of the book. Publisher, 2018.
C. Chicago Style: This referencing style is commonly used in history, arts, and social sciences. It has two variations: the Notes-Bibliography System, which uses footnotes or endnotes for in-text citations and a bibliography at the end, and the Author-Date System, which uses author-date in-text citations and a reference list. Example footnotes citation: ^1Smith, John. Title of the book. Publisher, 2017. Example Author-Date citation: (Smith 2017)
D. Harvard Style: This referencing style is commonly used in the sciences and social sciences. It uses author-date in-text citations and a reference list at the end of the document. Example in-text citation: (Smith 2016) Example reference list entry: Smith, J. (2016). Title of the article. Journal of Science, 45(2), 123-145.
E. IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Style: This referencing style is commonly used in engineering, computer science, and other technical fields. It uses numeric in-text citations in square brackets and a numbered reference list at the end of the document. Example in-text citation: [1] Example reference list entry: [1] Smith, J. Title of the article. IEEE Transactions on Engineering, 2015, 12(3), 456-467.
Note: These are just examples of commonly used referencing styles. It is important to refer to the specific guidelines of the citation style required by your institution or publication for accurate referencing.

A. Establishing the credibility and reliability of the proposal: Referencing allows you to acknowledge and cite the sources of information or ideas that you have used to support your research proposal. This helps establish the credibility and reliability of your proposal by demonstrating that it is based on existing research and scholarly work.
B. Demonstrating the extent of literature review: A research proposal typically includes a literature review, which is an overview of relevant existing research on the topic. Referencing enables you to provide proper credit to the authors of the works you have reviewed, and helps demonstrate the extent of your literature review by citing the sources you have consulted.
C. Supporting the validity and robustness of the proposal: By referencing relevant sources, you can provide evidence and support for the research questions, hypotheses, or claims made in your proposal. Referencing allows you to back up your arguments with authoritative sources, which enhances the validity and robustness of your proposal.
D. Avoiding plagiarism and upholding academic integrity: Plagiarism, which is the unethical or unauthorized use of others’ work as one’s own, is a serious academic offense. Referencing helps you avoid plagiarism by properly citing the sources you have used, giving credit to the original authors, and upholding academic integrity and ethical research practices.
E. Enabling further research and validation: Referencing provides a comprehensive list of sources that can serve as a valuable resource for other researchers who may be interested in your topic. It allows them to further explore the literature, validate your findings, and build upon your research. Proper referencing also facilitates the peer-review process, where reviewers can verify the accuracy and appropriateness of the sources cited in your proposal.
In summary, referencing is significant to the design of a research proposal as it establishes credibility, supports the validity of arguments, avoids plagiarism, upholds academic integrity, and enables further research. Proper referencing is an essential aspect of research proposal writing, ensuring that your work is transparent, credible, and aligned with the standards of academic integrity

Uche Miracle Chiamaka
2019/241948
Economics

1.
Thank you for the nomination and the opportunity to serve as the Special Adviser on Research Methods and Documentation to the President. As an experienced academic and policy researcher, I believe that the following characteristics and qualities are essential for success in this role:

Expertise and Skills: A good researcher must possess relevant expertise and skills in their field of research. I have acquired this expertise and skills through my academic training, research work, and publications. I have a deep understanding of research methods and data analysis techniques and have used them extensively in my research projects.

Analytical thinking: The ability to analyze and interpret complex data is essential for any researcher. I have honed my analytical thinking skills through years of research, and I am confident that I can apply these skills to provide meaningful insights into policy issues.

Attention to Detail: As a researcher, I am meticulous in my work and pay close attention to details. This helps me to identify patterns, trends, and anomalies in data that may be missed by others.

Creativity: A good researcher must be creative and able to think outside the box. This is especially important when developing new research methodologies or designing research projects that address complex policy issues.

Communication Skills: The ability to communicate research findings effectively is critical. I am an experienced writer and have published numerous research papers in peer-reviewed journals. I am also skilled at presenting research findings to diverse audiences, including policymakers, academics, and the general public.

Collaboration: Research is often a collaborative effort, and a good researcher must be able to work effectively with others. I have worked on numerous research projects with colleagues from different disciplines, and I understand the importance of teamwork and collaboration.

Strategic Thinking: As the Special Adviser on Research Methods and Documentation, I will be involved in developing and implementing research strategies that support the policy-making efforts of the administration. I have the strategic thinking skills necessary to contribute to the development of these strategies and ensure that they are aligned with the administration’s goals.

Overall, I believe that my expertise, analytical thinking, attention to detail, creativity, communication skills, collaboration, and strategic thinking make me well-suited for this position as the Special Adviser on Research Methods and Documentation to the President

2.
The structure of a final year project in Economics can vary depending on the institution, the requirements of the program, and the focus of the research. However, a typical structure for an undergraduate or graduate-level project in Economics may include the following sections:

Introduction: This section sets the context for the research by providing an overview of the topic, research question, and the motivation for the study. The introduction should also provide a brief overview of the methodology used and the main findings.

Literature Review: This section provides a critical analysis of the existing literature on the research topic. It should identify the key debates, concepts, theories, and research findings related to the topic. The literature review should also highlight the gaps in the existing literature and explain how the study aims to contribute to the field.

Methodology: This section explains the methods and techniques used to collect and analyze the data. It should provide a clear description of the research design, sample size, data collection techniques, and statistical analysis.

Results: This section presents the main findings of the study in a clear and concise manner. It should use appropriate graphs, tables, and charts to display the results of the analysis.

Discussion: This section interprets the results of the study and discusses the implications of the findings. It should relate the results to the research question, hypotheses, and the existing literature. The discussion section should also identify the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

Conclusion: This section summarizes the key findings of the study and provides a conclusion to the research question. It should also highlight the contribution of the study to the field of Economics.

References: This section provides a list of all the sources cited in the research paper. The references should be formatted according to the specific citation style recommended by the institution or the program.

It is important to note that the structure of a final year project may vary depending on the specific requirements of the institution or program. Therefore, it is essential to consult the guidelines provided by the institution and the program to ensure that the research paper is structured appropriately.

3. The methodology debate in research refers to the ongoing discussion about the appropriate methods and techniques for conducting research. Below are seven issues associated with this debate and how they can be resolved to improve research:

Reliability and Validity: Reliability refers to the consistency of research findings over time and across different research settings, while validity refers to the accuracy of the research findings. One issue is that some research methods may sacrifice reliability for the sake of validity, and vice versa. This issue can be resolved by using multiple methods to triangulate findings and increase both reliability and validity.

Generalizability: Generalizability refers to the extent to which research findings can be applied to other contexts beyond the specific research setting. One issue is that some research methods may not produce findings that are generalizable to other settings or populations. This issue can be resolved by using a sample that is representative of the target population and by using research methods that are appropriate for the specific research question.

Bias: Bias refers to the influence of researcher or participant factors that can impact research findings. One issue is that some research methods may be more susceptible to bias than others. This issue can be resolved by using research methods that minimize bias, such as randomized controlled trials or double-blind studies.

Ethics: Ethics refers to the principles and guidelines for conducting research in an ethical and responsible manner. One issue is that some research methods may raise ethical concerns, such as research that involves deception or harm to participants. This issue can be resolved by following ethical guidelines and obtaining informed consent from participants.

Practicality: Practicality refers to the feasibility of using certain research methods given the resources and time constraints of the research project. One issue is that some research methods may be too expensive, time-consuming, or complex to use. This issue can be resolved by selecting research methods that are appropriate for the specific research question and that can be feasibly implemented within the constraints of the project.

Subjectivity: Subjectivity refers to the extent to which research findings are influenced by the researcher’s personal biases, beliefs, or assumptions. One issue is that some research methods may be more susceptible to subjectivity than others. This issue can be resolved by using research methods that minimize the influence of the researcher’s subjectivity, such as objective measures and standardized protocols.

Replicability: Replicability refers to the ability of other researchers to replicate research findings using the same methods and procedures. One issue is that some research methods may not be easily replicable, either due to lack of clarity in the methods or lack of availability of resources. This issue can be resolved by clearly documenting research procedures and making resources available to other researchers.

To improve research, it is important to carefully consider the research question, context, and resources when selecting research methods. Researchers should also strive to use multiple methods, follow ethical guidelines, and clearly document research procedures to increase the reliability, validity, and replicability of their findings. Additionally, engaging in ongoing discussions and debates about methodology can help identify areas for improvement and lead to the development of new and more effective research methods.

4.
Referencing is the process of acknowledging and citing sources that have been used in a research paper or project. It is an important part of academic writing as it helps to avoid plagiarism and gives credit to the original authors of the ideas, theories, or data used in the research.

Below are five referencing methods, with relevant examples:

Harvard Referencing: This method requires the author’s name and date of publication to be included in the in-text citation, and a full reference list at the end of the paper. For example, in-text citation (Smith, 2020) and reference list entry: Smith, J. (2020). The importance of referencing. Journal of Academic Writing, 15(3), 23-34.

APA Referencing: This method also requires the author’s name and date of publication to be included in the in-text citation, and a full reference list at the end of the paper. However, it uses a slightly different format than Harvard referencing. For example, in-text citation (Smith, 2020) and reference list entry: Smith, J. (2020). The importance of referencing. Journal of Academic Writing, 15(3), 23-34. doi:10.1080/12345678.2020.12345.

Chicago Referencing: This method uses footnotes or endnotes for in-text citations, with a bibliography at the end of the paper. For example, footnote: Smith, John. “The Importance of Referencing.” Journal of Academic Writing 15, no. 3 (2020): 23-34. Bibliography entry: Smith, John. “The Importance of Referencing.” Journal of Academic Writing 15, no. 3 (2020): 23-34.

MLA Referencing: This method also uses in-text citations and a Works Cited page at the end of the paper. For example, in-text citation (Smith 23) and Works Cited entry: Smith, John. “The Importance of Referencing.” Journal of Academic Writing, vol. 15, no. 3, 2020, pp. 23-34.

Vancouver Referencing: This method is commonly used in the medical and scientific fields, and uses a numerical system for in-text citations, with a reference list at the end of the paper. For example, in-text citation (1) and reference list entry: 1. Smith J. The importance of referencing. J Acad Writing. 2020;15(3):23-34.

The significance of referencing in the design of a research proposal cannot be overstated. Proper referencing provides a foundation for the literature review and background section of the proposal, as it shows that the researcher has done their due diligence in researching and citing relevant literature. Referencing also helps to demonstrate the credibility of the research, as it shows that the researcher has used reliable and trustworthy sources. Furthermore, referencing ensures that the researcher avoids plagiarism, which is a serious ethical issue in academic research. Proper referencing adds value to the research, enhances the clarity of ideas, and makes the research more easily accessible to other researchers who may want to build on or replicate the study.

Question 1
Qualities of a good researcher
Result oriented
Efficiency – maximum productivity with minimum effort
Scientific- careful and using a system or method
Effective- doing the right thing
Active- engaging or ready to engage
Resourceful – having the ability to find quick skillful and clearer ways to dealing with new situations and overcome difficulties
Creative- relating or involving the use of the imagination or original ideas
Honest- free of deceit,truthful and sincere
Economical – careful not to waste money or resources
Reputable – held in good repute, honorable etc

Question 2
The structure and content of sections and subsections in a research paper may vary depending on the specific requirements of the academic or publication guidelines, the type of research being conducted, and the author’s preferences. However, in general, a typical research paper may include the following sections and subsections:
1. Title: This section includes the title of the research paper, which should be concise, informative, and relevant to the research topic.
2. Abstract: This section provides a brief summary of the research paper, usually no more than 250 words. It should briefly describe the research problem, objectives, methods, results, and conclusions of the study.
3. Introduction: This section introduces the research problem, provides background information on the topic, and presents the research question or hypothesis. It may also include a literature review that reviews relevant research and establishes the context for the study.
4. Methods: This section describes the research design, participants, data collection procedures, and data analysis methods used in the study. It should provide enough detail for the study to be replicated by other researchers.
5. Results: This section presents the findings of the research, usually in the form of tables, figures, or other visual representations. It should provide a clear and concise description of the results without interpretation or discussion.
6. Discussion: This section interprets the results, discusses their implications, and relates them to the research question or hypothesis. It may also compare the findings with previous research, identify limitations of the study, and suggest directions for future research.
7. Conclusion: This section summarizes the main findings of the study and provides a concise conclusion based on the research results. It should avoid introducing new information and may include recommendations or implications for practice.
8. References: This section lists all the sources that were cited in the research paper, following a specific citation style (such as APA, MLA, or Chicago).
9. Appendices: This section includes any supplementary material that is not included in the main body of the paper, such as raw data, additional tables or figures, or research instruments used in the study.
It’s important to note that the organization and structure of a research paper may vary depending on the specific requirements of the target publication or the author’s preferences. Always refer to the specific guidelines provided by your institution or the target publication when structuring your research paper.

Question 3
1. Selection bias: Selection bias occurs when the sample used in a study is not representative of the population of interest, leading to inaccurate or biased results. To address selection bias, researchers can use random sampling techniques to ensure that every member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the study. This can help minimize the potential for selection bias and increase the generalizability of the findings.
2. Confounding variables: Confounding variables are factors that can affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables in a study, leading to spurious or misleading results. To mitigate confounding variables, researchers can use techniques such as matching, stratification, or statistical control to account for their effects. Additionally, conducting randomized controlled trials (RCTs) where participants are randomly assigned to different groups can help control for confounding variables and establish cause-and-effect relationships.
3. Measurement error: Measurement error refers to inaccuracies or inconsistencies in the measurement of variables, which can lead to inaccurate results. Researchers can minimize measurement error by using reliable and valid measurement instruments, conducting pilot testing to refine measurement procedures, and ensuring that data collection procedures are standardized and well-documented. Using multiple measures or methods to assess the same variable can also help increase the reliability of the findings.
4. Sample size and power: Sample size refers to the number of participants in a study, and power refers to the ability of a study to detect a statistically significant effect if it exists. Small sample sizes can result in low statistical power, increasing the likelihood of Type II errors (false negatives) and reducing the generalizability of the findings. Researchers can address this issue by conducting power analyses to determine the optimal sample size for their study, and by striving to recruit an adequate number of participants to ensure reliable and valid results.
5. Ethical considerations: Ethical issues can arise in research methodology, such as ensuring informed consent, protecting participants’ confidentiality and privacy, and avoiding harm. Researchers can address these issues by following established ethical guidelines and obtaining approval from relevant institutional review boards (IRBs) or ethics committees. Informed consent should be obtained from all participants, and steps should be taken to protect their rights and well-being throughout the research process.
6. Data analysis and interpretation: Data analysis and interpretation can be complex, and different methods can yield different results. Researchers should carefully select appropriate statistical techniques, ensure that data are analyzed correctly, and interpret findings in light of their limitations. It is important to report findings transparently, including any limitations or potential biases, and to avoid overgeneralizing or making unsupported conclusions.
7. Replicability and reproducibility: Replicability refers to the ability of other researchers to reproduce the findings of a study using the same methods and data, while reproducibility refers to the ability to obtain similar results using different methods or data. Replicability and reproducibility are critical for establishing the validity and reliability of research findings. To promote replicability and reproducibility, researchers should provide clear and detailed descriptions of their methods, share their data and materials, and use open science practices such as pre-registration and data sharing. Additionally, peer review and independent replication studies can help validate research findings and identify any potential issues with methodology.
In summary, methodology issues in research can impact the validity, reliability, and generalizability of findings. Researchers can address these issues by using appropriate sampling techniques, controlling for confounding variables, minimizing measurement error, ensuring ethical considerations, conducting adequate power analyses, using appropriate data analysis and interpretation techniques, and promoting replicability and reproducibility through transparent research practices.

Question 4
Referencing is acknowledging and citing sources used in academic writing, giving credit to original authors, allowing verification, upholding academic integrity, and enabling further exploration.
Referencing methods
1.
2. APA (American Psychological Association) Style: This referencing style is commonly used in the social sciences and is known for its emphasis on author-date in-text citations and a detailed reference list at the end of the document. Example in-text citation: (Smith, 2019, p. 42) Example reference list entry: Smith, J. (2019). Title of the article. Journal of Psychology, 25(3), 38-52.
3. MLA (Modern Language Association) Style: This referencing style is commonly used in the humanities, especially in literature, arts, and humanities disciplines. It uses author-page in-text citations and a Works Cited list at the end of the document. Example in-text citation: (Johnson 56) Example Works Cited entry: Johnson, R. Title of the book. Publisher, 2018.
4. Chicago Style: This referencing style is commonly used in history, arts, and social sciences. It has two variations: the Notes-Bibliography System, which uses footnotes or endnotes for in-text citations and a bibliography at the end, and the Author-Date System, which uses author-date in-text citations and a reference list. Example footnotes citation: ^1Smith, John. Title of the book. Publisher, 2017. Example Author-Date citation: (Smith 2017)
5. Harvard Style: This referencing style is commonly used in the sciences and social sciences. It uses author-date in-text citations and a reference list at the end of the document. Example in-text citation: (Smith 2016) Example reference list entry: Smith, J. (2016). Title of the article. Journal of Science, 45(2), 123-145.
6. IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Style: This referencing style is commonly used in engineering, computer science, and other technical fields. It uses numeric in-text citations in square brackets and a numbered reference list at the end of the document. Example in-text citation: [1] Example reference list entry: [1] Smith, J. Title of the article. IEEE Transactions on Engineering, 2015, 12(3), 456-467.
Note: These are just examples of commonly used referencing styles. It is important to refer to the specific guidelines of the citation style required by your institution or publication for accurate referencing.

1. Establishing the credibility and reliability of the proposal: Referencing allows you to acknowledge and cite the sources of information or ideas that you have used to support your research proposal. This helps establish the credibility and reliability of your proposal by demonstrating that it is based on existing research and scholarly work.
2. Demonstrating the extent of literature review: A research proposal typically includes a literature review, which is an overview of relevant existing research on the topic. Referencing enables you to provide proper credit to the authors of the works you have reviewed, and helps demonstrate the extent of your literature review by citing the sources you have consulted.
3. Supporting the validity and robustness of the proposal: By referencing relevant sources, you can provide evidence and support for the research questions, hypotheses, or claims made in your proposal. Referencing allows you to back up your arguments with authoritative sources, which enhances the validity and robustness of your proposal.
4. Avoiding plagiarism and upholding academic integrity: Plagiarism, which is the unethical or unauthorized use of others’ work as one’s own, is a serious academic offense. Referencing helps you avoid plagiarism by properly citing the sources you have used, giving credit to the original authors, and upholding academic integrity and ethical research practices.
5. Enabling further research and validation: Referencing provides a comprehensive list of sources that can serve as a valuable resource for other researchers who may be interested in your topic. It allows them to further explore the literature, validate your findings, and build upon your research. Proper referencing also facilitates the peer-review process, where reviewers can verify the accuracy and appropriateness of the sources cited in your proposal.
In summary, referencing is significant to the design of a research proposal as it establishes credibility, supports the validity of arguments, avoids plagiarism, upholds academic integrity, and enables further research. Proper referencing is an essential aspect of research proposal writing, ensuring that your work is transparent, credible, and aligned with the standards of academic integrity.