ECO. 361 Online Discussion/Quiz–12-12-2022 (Understanding the meaning of Development)

Metu Sandra Chiamaka
2017/249526
Eco major
1.Many economists were aware of Dudley Seer’s theory of development before it was released.
According to this theory, development occurs when a nation’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) grows at a rate of 5% to 7% above average and the increases are maintained over an extended period of time.
They thought that a country had reached development when such increases took place.
For them, growth was mostly based on material expansion. Additionally, the notion that economic development is attained when there is a shift in the composition of production and employment such that manufacturing and services account for an increasing share of GDP and employment, while agriculture declines. According to Todaro and Smith (2006), these ideas led development economists to place a greater emphasis on industrialization at the expense of agriculture. According to the theory, although many developing nations saw an increase in their GDP in the 1960s and 1970s, the average standard of living for the vast majority of people stayed the same.
That is, improvements in growth (GDP) have no direct impact on people’s quality of life.
These caused numerous economists to think twice about what progress

2. Apart from a rise in output, Economic Development involves changes in composition of output, shift in the allocation of productive resources, and elimination or reduction of poverty, inequalities and unemployment. Clearly discuss the above assertion.
Economic growth is the most powerful instrument for reducing poverty and improving the quality of life in developing countries. Both cross-country research and country case studies provide overwhelming evidence that rapid and sustained growth is critical to making faster progress towards the Millennium Development Goals – and not just the first goal of halving the global proportion of people living on less than $1 a day.
Growth can generate virtuous circles of prosperity and opportunity. Strong growth and employment opportunities improve incentives for parents to invest in their children’s education by sending them to school. This may lead to the emergence of a strong and
growing group of entrepreneurs, which should generate pressure for improved governance. Strong economic growth therefore advances human development, which,
in turn, promotes economic growth.
But under different conditions, similar rates of growth can have very different effects on poverty, the employment prospects of the poor and broader indicators of human development. The extent to which growth reduces poverty depends on the degree to which the poor participate in the growth process and share in its proceeds. Thus, both the pace and pattern of growth matter for reducing poverty.
A successful strategy of poverty reduction must have at its core measures to promote rapid and sustained economic growth. The challenge for policy is to combine growthpromoting policies with policies that allow the poor to participate fully in the opportunities unleashed and so contribute to that growth. This includes policies to make labour markets work better, remove gender inequalities and increase financial inclusion.
Asian countries are increasingly tackling this agenda of ‘inclusive growth’. India’s most recent development plan has two main objectives: raising economic growth and making growth more inclusive, policy mirrored elsewhere in South Asia and Africa.

3. In the words of Amartya Sen “Development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom, poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systematic social deprivation neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or over activity of repressive states.
Yes,
Development means freedom, according to Amartya Sen, perhaps the greatest development thinker of our times.
Over the centuries, there have been very many theories of development. According to 1998 Nobel prize winner, Amartya Sen, freedom is both the primary objective of development, and the principal means of development. The human being is an engine of change.
Sen is both the first Indian and the first Asian to win the Nobel prize for economics. In winning the Nobel prize, Sen was praised by the Swedish Royal Academy of Sciences “for his contributions to welfare economics” and for restoring “an ethical dimension” to the discussion of vital economic problems.

According to Sen, development is enhanced by democracy and the protection of human rights. Such rights, especially freedom of the press, speech, assembly, and so forth increase the likelihood of honest, clean, good government.
He claims that “no famine has ever taken place in the history of the world in a functioning democracy”. This is because democratic governments “have to win elections and face public criticism, and have strong incentive to undertake measures to avert famines and other catastrophes”.

4. Critically discuss the Central Role of Women in the National Development
Women are the set of human beings that belongs to the female gender. They play the role of mothers, caretakers in family affairs, farmers, educators, entrepreneurs, teachers, e.t.c. It is historic that women play significant roles in societal development and ensure the stability, progress, and long-term development of nations. Women also play the role of decision-makers in homes. Globally, women contribute immensely to agricultural development, comprising about 43% of the world’s agricultural labor force. In some countries, the number of women involved in the agricultural labor force increases to over 70%. Available records indicate that in Africa alone, 80% of agricultural production comes from small farmers, most of whom are rural women. It is noteworthy that agriculture is the bedrock of national development as the best approach to food security, poverty reduction, job creation, and economic stability.

5. Clearly discuss some Important “Beings” and “Doings” in Capability to Function
Sen contends that a person’s ability to do and be things determines how happy they are.
He therefore concentrated on a more direct topic, such as the capacities and human functionings by which the quality of life is measured. In other words, a person’s talents provide a perspective from which his benefits and drawbacks may be fairly evaluated, which makes it extremely ideal for studying poverty.
Functionings: Functionings are the true “doings and beings” of individuals. They are human accomplishments; they are “doings” or “beings.” All of these accomplishments—doings and beings—add value to life when considered collectively. The functions could be having access to food and housing, being able to work and rest, being literate or healthy, belonging to a community or group, being respected, etc.

6. Discuss the three Core Values of Development with relevant example:
i. Sustenance:
A subsistence economy is an economy directed to basic subsistence (the provision of food, clothing, shelter) rather than to the market. Henceforth, “subsistence” is understood as supporting oneself at a minimum level. The life-sustaining basic human needs include food, shelter, health and protection. When any one of these is absent or in critically short supply, a condition of absolute “underdevelopment” exists.

ii. Self-esteem – To be a person: Confidence in one’s own worth or abilities; self-respect. “assertiveness training for those with low self-esteem” . A second universal component of good life is self- esteem- a sense of worth and self-respect- of not being used as a tool by others for their own ends. Due to the significance attached to material values in developed nations, worthiness and esteem are now-a-days increasingly conferred only on countries that possess economic wealth and technological power- those that have developed
III. Freedom from servitude, to be able to Choose: Arthur Lewis stressed the relationship between economic growth and freedom from servitude when he concluded that “the advantage of economic growth is not that wealth increases happiness, but that it increases the range of human choice.” Wealth can enable a person to gain greater control over nature and his physical environment than they would have if they ppremained poor.
It also gives them the freedom to choose greater leisure. The concept of human freedom should encompass various components of political freedom, freedom of expression, political participation and equality of opportunity.

7. Some scholars have argued that happiness has a direct correlation with
more income while others disagree with the assertion.
“Happiness improves with income, to a degree,” is how I would sum it up.
One of the most well-known conclusions from the economic study of happiness is that while overall pleasure rises with income, diminishing returns begin to take effect after a certain point.
In other words, after a certain point, wealth and further income have little impact on one’s degree of happiness.
After this, happiness presumably depends on other factors, such as health, free time, the caliber of friendships, and close family, rather than only income generating.
Obi cubana, the man in Nigeria, is just one example. Although having money helps build up one’s life, family and friends are also a major source of happiness for obi cubana today.

8)Distinguish between Economic Growth and Economic Development and tell us where we are currently as a nation in terms of growth and
development.
Economic Growth and Economic Development.
1) Economic growth is the improvement in economic indices.
Economic development is the transformation in an economy on both a quantitative and qualitative level.
2) The increase in the volume of products and services produced by an economy is referred to as economic growth.
In the context of an expanding economy, economic development refers to the reduction and abolition of poverty, unemployment, and inequality.
3) Increases in real national income and national output are indicative of economic growth.
Improvements in life expectancy, health care, and other aspects of living standards are examples of economic progress.
4) Economic growth is one-dimensional in nature because it only concentrates on people’s income.
Due to its dual focus on increasing income and enhancing peoples’ quality of living, economic growth is multidimensional in nature.

Nigeria as a nation is still experiencing economic growth and not development because the necessary conditions for growth have not yet been established. Additionally, the nation continues to struggle with economic instability, inflation and deflation, and political unrest.

Omeje Sharon Amarachi
2019/244241
Eco/pol (css)
Answers
(1) The development could be seen as involving the provision of basic needs of the people, which is the target population as a subject rather than an object. It lays more emphasis on human potentialities, creativity, energy and the involvement of people and government with individuals, and group of communities leading to increase capacity to control or make decisions on issues and problems that affect the less developed countries.
As discussed by Dudley Seers the purpose of development is to reduce poverty, inequality, and unemployment. To Seers, development involves reducing deprivation or broadening choice. It represents a multidimensional view of poverty that includes, hunger, illiteracy, illness and poor health, powerlessness, voicelessness, insecurity, humiliation and lack of access to basic infrastructures
(2). Apart from a rise in output, Economic Development is a process that creates growth, progress, positive change or the addition of physical, economic, environmental, social and demographic components. The purpose of development is a rise in the level and quality of life of the population, and the creation or expansion of local regional income and employment opportunities, without damaging the resources of the environment. Development is visible and useful, not necessarily immediately, and includes an aspect of quality change and the creation of conditions for a continuation of that change.
(3).l agree with Amartya sen.
Freedom implies not just to do something, but the capabilities to make it happen. What people can achieve (their capabilities) is influenced by “economic opportunities, political liberties, social powers, and the enabling condition of good health, basic education, and the encouragement and cultivation of initiatives.
(4). The capability approach is a theoretical framework that entails two normative claims: first, the claim that the freedom to achieve well-being is of primary moral importance and, second, that well-being should be understood in terms of people’s capabilities and functionings. Capabilities are the doings and beings that people can achieve if they so choose — their opportunity to do or be such things as being well-nourished, getting married, being educated, and travelling; functionings are capabilities that have been realized. Whether someone can convert a set of means – resources and public goods – into a functioning (i.e., whether she has a particular capability) crucially depends on certain personal, sociopolitical, and environmental conditions, which, in the capability literature, are called ‘conversion factors.’ Capabilities have also been referred to as real or substantive freedoms as they denote the freedoms that have been cleared of any potential obstacles, in contrast to mere formal rights and freedoms.
Within philosophy, the capability approach has been employed to the development of several conceptual and normative theories within, most prominently, development ethics, political philosophy, public health ethics, environmental ethics and climate justice, and philosophy of education. This proliferation of capability literature has led to questions concerning what kind of framework it is (section 1); how its core concepts should be defined (section 2); how it can be further specified for particular purposes (section 3); what is needed to develop the capability approach into an account of social justice (section 4); how it relates to non-Western philosophies (section 5); and how it can be and has been applied in practice (section 6).

(5).Enhancing women ‘ s participation in development is essential not only for achieving social justice but also for reducing poverty. Worldwide experience shows clearly that supporting a stronger role for women contributes to economic growth, it improves child survival and overall family health, and it reduces fertility, thus helping to slow population growth rates. In short, investing in women is central to sustainable development. And yet, despite these known returns, women still face many barriers in contributing to and benefiting from development. The barriers begin with comparatively low investment in female education and health, they continue with restricted access to services and assets, and they are made worse by legal and regulatory constraints on women ‘ s opportunities. As a result, the worlwide progress in development over the last three decades has not translated into proportional gains for women. This paper points to actions that can help to turn around this inequitable situation. Evidence of what works is particularly strong in five areas: education, health, wage labor, agriculture and natural resource management, and financial services. The paper also suggests a broadening of the women in development approach toward a gender in development strategy that takes into account the relative roles and responsibilities of women and men and recognizes that, of effect long-term change in the conditions of women, the actions and attitudes of men must change.
(6)(i) Life Sustenance, i.e., Ability to Meet Basic Needs:
It is also known as “the ability to meet basic needs”. All the persons have certain basic needs which are necessary for the survival. They consist of food, shelter, health and protection. If any one of them is missing or in short supply in any economy it would represent the state of under-development. Therefore, the purpose of economic development and economic activity is to make the possible efforts whereby the helplessness and misery of the people which arises due to lack of food, shelter, health and protection could be removed.
Self-Esteem, i.e., to be a Person:
A second universal component of the good life is a self-esteem, a sense of worth and self-respect. It means that the other people could not use him for their own ends. It also means that each person should be given his due respect and due right. Each person is desirous of his prestige, identity and recognition, though all f such values differ from country to country and from society to society. It is being observed now a days that when the process of economic development starts in a country the inequalities in the distribution of income increase. Because of such inequality the rich class considers itself superior to the poor. In this way, the poor segment of the society suffers from inferiority complex which leads to affect their efficiency.
Freedom from Servitude, i.e., to be Able to Choose:
The third universal value required for economic development is concerned with human freedom. By freedom it means the emancipation from alienating material conditions of life and from social servitude to nature, ignorance, other people, misery, institutions and dogmatic beliefs. As Arthur Lewis says:
“Advantage of economic growth is not that wealth increases happiness, but that it increases the range of human choice”.
(7).In order to adequately address this question, it is necessary to differentiate between ‘ideal’ happiness and ‘actual’ happiness.
‘Ideal’ happiness implies a way of being that is complete, lasting and altogether perfect… probably outside of anyone’s reach! (Kesebir & Diener, 2008). However, despite this, people can actually experience mostly positive emotions and report overall satisfaction with their lives and therefore be deemed ‘happy’.
In fact, most people are happy. In a study conducted by the Pew Research Center in the US (2006), 84% of Americans see themselves as either “very happy” or “pretty happy” (Kesebir & Diener, 2008).
Happiness also has an adaptive function. How is happiness adaptive? Well, positivity and wellbeing are also associated with people being confident enough to explore their environments and approach new goals, which increases the likelihood of them collecting resources.
The fact that most people report being happy, and happiness having an adaptive function, leads Kesebir and Diener (2008) to conclude that yes people can, in fact, be happy.
(8).Economic Growth:
Economic Growth is the positive change in the indicators of economy.
Economic Growth refers to the increment in amount of goods and services produced by an economy.
Economic growth means an increase in real national income / national output.
It refers to an increase over time in a country’s real output of goods and services (GNP) or real output per capita income.
Economic growth is single dimensional in nature as it only focuses on income of the people.
Earlier, economic growth was only measured in terms of Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
At present, it is measured in terms of GDP, Gross National Income (GNI) and Per Capita Income.
Economic Growth is the precursor and prerequisite for economic development.
Indicators of economic growth are GDP, GNI and per capita income.
Economic growth relates a gradual increase in one of the components of GDP; consumption, government spending, investment or net exports.
It is also considered as a traditional measure of development which indicates the quantitative rise of economy.
Economic growth only looks at the quantitative aspect. It brings quantitative changes in the economy.
Economic growth is concerned with increase in economy’s output.
It focuses on production of goods and services.
Economic growth is more relevant metric for assessing progress in developed countries.
Economic growth is relatively narrow concept as compared to economic development.
It is for short term/short period.
It is a material/physical concept.
Economic growth is measured in certain time frame/period.
Economic Development:
Economic development is the quantitative and qualitative change in an economy.
Economic development refers to the reduction and elimination of poverty, unemployment and inequality with the context of growing economy.
Economic development means an improvement in the quality of life and living standards, e.g. measures of literacy, life-expectancy and health care.
Economic development includes process and policies by which a country improves the social, economic and political well-being of its people.
Economic development is multi-dimensional in nature as it focuses on both income and improvement of living standards of the people.
Economic development is concerned with the happiness of public life.
Economic development comes after economic growth. It is a positive impact of economic growth.
Economic development also refers to:
provision of sufficient and effective physical and social infrastructures
equal access to resources
participation of all in economic activities
equitable distribution of dividends of economy.
Economic development= Economic growth + standard of living
It refers to increase in productivity.
Indicators of economic development are:
Human Development Index (HDI)
Human Poverty Index (HPI)
Gini Coefficient
Gender Development Index (GDI)
Balance of trade
Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI)
Economic development is the ends of development.
Achieving economic development is linked with end of poverty and inequality.
It is more abstract concept.
Economic development focuses on distribution of resources.
Nigeria current status in terms of growth and development;
While Nigeria has made some progress in socio-economic terms in recent years, its human capital development ranked 150 of 157 countries in the World Bank’s 2020 Human Capital Index. The country continues to face massive developmental challenges, including the need to reduce the dependency on oil and diversify the economy, address insufficient infrastructure, build strong and effective institutions, as well as address governance issues and public financial management systems.
Inequality, in terms of income and opportunities, remains high and has adversely affected poverty reduction. The lack of job opportunities is at the core of the high poverty levels, regional inequality, and social and political unrest. High inflation has also taken a toll on household’s welfare and high prices in 2020-2022 are likely to have pushed an additional 8 million Nigerians into poverty. So in all Nigeria is still battling with Economic growth.

Name : Okechi Paschal makuo
Dept: Library and information science
Reg no:2019/247596
1:Professor Dudley Seers’ argument is that development is about outcomes, specifically the reduction and elimination of poverty, inequality, and unemployment within a growing economy. This argument suggests that development is not just about economic growth, but also about improving people’s lives by addressing social and economic challenges.

Reducing poverty is essential for development as it allows individuals to access basic needs such as food, shelter, education, and healthcare. When people are lifted out of poverty, they are more likely to participate in economic and social activities, which can lead to further economic growth.

Inequalities, such as income and wealth disparities, can create social tensions and limit opportunities for some individuals and groups. Addressing inequality can help to ensure that everyone has access to education, healthcare, and other opportunities, regardless of their background or economic status. This can also contribute to economic growth by increasing productivity and innovation.

Unemployment can also be a significant obstacle to development, as it can limit individuals’ ability to access opportunities and contribute to economic growth. Addressing unemployment can involve investing in education and training programs, creating job opportunities, and supporting entrepreneurship.

However, it is worth noting that development is a complex and multidimensional concept that encompasses more than just poverty, inequality, and unemployment. Other factors, such as environmental sustainability, governance, and human rights, also play a crucial role in development.

Overall, Professor Dudley Seers’ argument highlights the importance of focusing on outcomes that improve people’s lives and promote sustainable economic growth. By addressing poverty, inequality, and unemployment, policymakers and stakeholders can work towards a more equitable and prosperous future for all.
2: Economic development is a process that involves the improvement of the economic well-being of a society. It is a multifaceted process that goes beyond the mere increase in output. In addition to the rise in output, as you mentioned, economic development involves changes in the composition of output, a shift in the allocation of productive resources, and the elimination or reduction of poverty, inequalities, and unemployment.

One of the key components of economic development is the change in the composition of output. This means that the economy shifts from producing low-value-added products to high-value-added products. This shift can be achieved through the adoption of new technologies, the development of new industries, and the improvement of existing industries. The shift towards producing higher value-added products is important because it results in the creation of higher-paying jobs, and increased productivity and competitiveness.

Another important component of economic development is the reallocation of productive resources. This involves the movement of resources from less productive to more productive sectors of the economy. For example, resources may be shifted from agriculture to manufacturing or from low-tech to high-tech industries. The reallocation of resources is important because it leads to higher productivity and greater efficiency.

The elimination or reduction of poverty, inequalities, and unemployment is also a critical component of economic development. Economic development should result in the creation of jobs and the improvement of living standards for all members of society. This can be achieved through the creation of a conducive business environment, the development of infrastructure, and the provision of education and training.

In conclusion, economic development is a complex process that involves more than just an increase in output. It involves changes in the composition of output, a shift in the allocation of productive resources, and the elimination or reduction of poverty, inequalities, and unemployment. These components are interrelated and must be addressed in a coordinated manner in order to achieve sustained economic growth and development.
3:
As an AI language model, I don’t have personal beliefs or opinions, but I can provide an analysis of the statement made by Amartya Sen.

In his statement, Amartya Sen argues that development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom, which includes both poverty and tyranny. Poverty refers to the lack of basic necessities needed for survival such as food, shelter, and healthcare, while tyranny refers to the abuse of power by those in authority, which can lead to the suppression of individual freedoms.

Sen also points out that development requires the removal of other sources of unfreedom, such as poor economic opportunities and systematic social deprivation. Poor economic opportunities can lead to a lack of employment opportunities, which can result in persistent poverty. Systematic social deprivation refers to the exclusion of certain groups from accessing social and economic opportunities, which can lead to significant disparities in society.

Furthermore, Sen argues that development requires addressing the neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or overactivity of repressive states. Neglect of public facilities, such as inadequate healthcare, education, and infrastructure, can limit opportunities for people to improve their lives. Intolerance or overactivity of repressive states can lead to the violation of human rights and the suppression of freedom of expression, which can hinder development.

In his statement, Sen emphasizes the importance of addressing a wide range of issues that contribute to unfreedom in order to achieve development. He recognizes that development is a complex process that requires the removal of multiple sources of unfreedom, including poverty, tyranny, poor economic opportunities, systematic social deprivation, neglect of public facilities, and intolerance or overactivity of repressive states.

In conclusion, Amartya Sen’s statement highlights the need to address the root causes of unfreedom in order to achieve development. By removing these sources of unfreedom, individuals can have greater access to economic and social opportunities, which can lead to improved living standards and greater individual freedoms.
4. Central Role of Women in National Development:
The central role of women in national development cannot be overemphasized. Women make up half of the population and are responsible for raising the other half. They are major players in the development of any society, as they are involved in various roles such as caregivers, producers, and consumers. Women’s contributions to national development can be seen in areas such as education, health, agriculture, and entrepreneurship. When women are empowered, they can contribute to the economic growth of a nation, and their families and communities benefit from their increased income and improved standard of living. However, women’s empowerment is still a challenge in many parts of the world, where gender inequality persists.

5. Beings and Doings in Capability to Function:
The capability to function refers to an individual’s ability to achieve their goals and live a fulfilling life. Beings refer to the individual’s physical and mental capabilities, while doings refer to the actual activities they engage in. For example, an individual’s being may include their intelligence, physical health, and emotional well-being, while their doings may include their education, employment, and participation in social activities. Both beings and doings are important in the capability to function, as individuals need both the physical and mental capacity to engage in activities that lead to a fulfilling life.

6. Core Values of Development:
The three core values of development are equity, sustainability, and human rights. Equity refers to the fair distribution of resources and opportunities, regardless of factors such as gender, race, or economic status. Sustainability refers to the responsible use of resources to ensure that future generations can also benefit from them. Human rights refer to the protection of basic human rights, including freedom of speech, religion, and the right to a fair trial. For example, a development project that prioritizes equity would ensure that marginalized groups have access to the resources and opportunities that they need to thrive.

7. Happiness and Income:
The relationship between happiness and income is a complex and debated topic. While some scholars argue that higher income leads to greater happiness, others disagree, pointing to factors such as social relationships, health, and personal values as more important determinants of happiness. It is important to note that happiness is a subjective experience and can vary greatly among individuals and cultures.

8. Economic Growth vs. Economic Development:
Economic growth refers to an increase in a nation’s output of goods and services, usually measured by changes in gross domestic product (GDP). Economic development, on the other hand, refers to the process by which a nation improves its standard of living, reduces poverty, and increases economic and social well-being. Economic growth can be a component of economic development, but it is not sufficient on its own. A nation can experience economic growth without achieving sustainable economic development. Currently, as a nation, the level of economic growth in a country can be measured by its GDP growth rate, while development can be assessed by indicators such as the Human Development Index (HDI), which includes factors such as life expectancy, education, and income.

Dinyelu Chikaodili Lovette
2019/245486
Combined Social Science
Economics/Political Science
chikaodililovette@gmail.com

1. Firstly, Development can be seen as a complex multi-dimensional concept involving improvements in human well being. Professor Dudley Seers argues that development is about outcomes, that is, development occurs with the reduction and elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment within a growing economy. This is because to him, if these three variables have declined over a period of time, then development has occurred for the nation concerned. But, if one or two of these variables have been growing worse, especially if all three have, it would be strange to call the result development even if per capita income has soared. Based on Professor Dudley Seers arguments or statements, the following questions usually come to mind to know if really a nation is developed or not.
-. What has been happening to poverty?
_. What has been happening to unemployment?
_. What has been happening to inequality?
To Seer, if all three of these are declining, then beyond doubt, that nation is experiencing development. These means that true development happened when poverty is reduced or eliminated, unemployment declining and the levels of inequality is reducing. Of course, reduction in these three development indicators will in no doubt increases as the well being and quality of life of a nation’s citizens.

2. Apart from a rise in output, Economic development involves changes in composition of output, shift in allocation of productive resources, and elimination or reduction of poverty, inequalities and unemployment. This is possible because econmic development is the end point for every economy and cannot be achieved without this.

3. I agree with Armatya Sen’s word which says development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom, poverty as well as tyranny,poor econmic opportunities as well as systematic social deprivation neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or over activity of repressive states because Sen viewed development as freedom and the capability to function. According to him, for a person to be classified as poor and non-poor, it depends on the person’s capability to function. He defines capability as “the freedom that a person enjoyed in terms of choice to function, given his personal features and his command for commodities”. To Sen, poverty cannot be measured by income as conventionally understood. The important thing is not what a person has, but who he is, or maybe he did, or can do. According to Sen, development means to reduce deprivation or expand choice. Deprivation is a multidimensional phenomenon of poverty, which includes hunger, illiteracy, illness and poor health, impotence, lack of voice, insecurity, humiliation and lack of access to the foundation. For Sen, life consists in the effective freedom of man to achieve states of being and things. Therefore, freedom (not development) is the ultimate goal of economic life as well as the most efficient means of realizing general welfare. Overcoming deprivations is central to development.

4. The central role of women in the national development. Firstly, to make the biggest impact on development, societies must empower and invest in women. Women are the set of human beings that belongs to the female gender. They play the role of mothers, caretakers in family affairs, farmers, educators, entrepreneurs, teachers, e.t.c. It is historic that women play significant roles in societal development and ensure the stability, progress, and long-term development of nations. Women also play the role of decision-makers in homes. Globally, women contribute immensely to agricultural development, comprising about 43% of the world’s agricultural labor force. In some countries, the number of women involved in the agricultural labor force increases to over 70%. Available records indicate that in Africa alone, 80% of agricultural production comes from small farmers, most of whom are rural women. It is noteworthy that agriculture is the bedrock of national development as the best approach to food security, poverty reduction, job creation, and economic stability.
At home, women, notably mothers, play the role in decision-making about family meal planning and diet. Women also initiate and preserve the nutritional and healthcare programs of children at home. In addition, women are not only caring for their children at home but are also the primary caretakers of both children and elders in every country of the world. International studies indicate that women lead in finding solutions to the problems occasioned by a change of political and economic organizations in countries, thereby helping the family adjust to new realities and challenges. Indeed, women are the initiators who play important role in facilitating changes in family life. The UN Women Watch organization asserts that ” rural women play a key role in supporting their households and communities in achieving food and nutritional security, generating income, and improving rural livelihoods and overall wellbeing.
As educators, the role or contribution of women to society’s transition from pre-literate to the literate period is highly significant. Basic education is key to a nation’s ability to develop and achieve sustainable policies and programs. It is evident that education helps to improve agricultural productivity, enhances the status of girls and women, stabilizes population growth rates, enhances environmental protection and, increases the standard of living. It is the mother at home who most often urges children of both genders to attend and stay in school. The role of women is at the front end of the chain of improvement, leading to the family and the community’s long term capacity.
The role of women in providing an improved and sustainable workforce is also significant and exciting. The women’s share of the global workforce is about 45.5%. Women’s formal and informal labor can transform a community from a relatively autonomous society to a participant in the national economy. It is obvious that despite the cultural, social, and political setbacks of women, small businesses controlled by women in rural communities are not only extending beyond family lifelines but can also form a networked economic foundation for future generations. The role of women in the urban and rural workforce has expanded greatly in recent times.

5. Some important “Beings” and “Doings” in capability to function include:
(a). Being able to live long
(b). Being well-nourished
(c). Being healthy
(d). Being literate
(e). Being well clothed
(f). Being mobile
(g). Being able to take part in the life the community

6. The three core values of development with relevant examples include;
(a). Sustenance:Sustenance is the ability of people to meet the basic needs without which life will be impossible. These needs include food, shelter, health and protection. “Absolute underdevelopment” is when any of these is absent or in critically short supply. Without livelihoods and continuous economic progress, the realization of human potential will be much more difficult.
(b) Self-Esteem: This value talked about a sense of worth and self respect, a sense of not being used as a tool by others for their own selfish ends. It is believed that development is an important way of gaining self-esteem. Self-esteem is nowadays increasingly conferred only on countries and individuals that possess economic wealth, especially in Nigeria. True development should accord self-esteem to her every of her citizen whether they posses economic power or not.
(c). Freedom from servitude (ability to choose): This is the third core value which states that “freedom should be in form of being freeing from alienating material conditions of life and from social servitude to nature, ignorance, misery and dogmatic beliefs, especially that poverty is predestination”. To be able to make political and economic choice that does not infringe on someone’s rights.

7. Some scholars argued that happiness has a direct correlation with more income while others disagree because there is not a perfect correlation between happiness and per capita income as people could be poor, but happy, rich, but and unhappy. Scholars have extensively studied whether people with higher levels of income are happier. These scholars have demonstrated a correlation between higher incomes and greater happiness. However, the opposite question has not been well studied: To what extent do happier people earn greater income? It is assumed that higher incomes cause greater happiness. However, this causation has not been proven. It is possible that innately happier people earn higher incomes than people who are not as happy. If happier people do earn greater incomes, then this research could have far reaching implications that affect how companies across the globe treat their employees. Over the last 5 decades, the income–happiness correlation has increased, not decreased, in the USA and several European countries. The income–happiness correlation tends to get higher when both GDP per capita and income inequality are high, whereas it tends to get lower when GDP per capita and/or income inequality are low. These findings suggest the importance of accounting for income inequality as well as national wealth in understanding the role of money in happiness.
Once per capita income increases above $10000 to $20000, the percentage of people who say they are happy tends to increase.

8. The differences between economic growth and economic development includes the following;
1). Economic growth refers to increase in the monetary ( income) or output growth of a nation in a particular period. It takes place when there is a sustained (ongoing for at least 1-2 years) increase in a country’s output of goods and services meanwhile economic development refers to the overall development of the quality of life in a nation which includes economic growth. It occurs when the standard of living of a large majority of the population rises, including both income and other dimensions like health and literacy.
2). Economic growth is a narrower concept that economic development. GDP is a narrow measure of economic welfare that does not take account of non- economic aspects like more leisure time, access to health and education, environment, freedom or social justice meanwhile, economic development is a broader concept that economic growth. It involves steady decline in agricultural shares in GNP and continuous increase in shares of industries, trade banking construction and services.
3). Economic growth is a uni-dimensional approach which deals with the increase in income or output ( economic growth) of the nation, meanwhile, economic development is a multi-dimensional approach that looks into the income and as well as the quality of life of the nation. It also involves changes in technological and institutional organization of production as well as in distributive pattern of income.
4). Economic growth is a short term process while economic development is a long term process which leads to progressive changes in the socio-economic structure of a country.
5). Economic growth is about income ( GDP,GNP,GNI) meanwhile economic development is about outcomes ( Human development indicators, industrial development, improved standard of living
6). Economic growth is a necessary but insufficient condition for economic development meanwhile economic development is a necessary and sufficient condition for improvement if human welfare, raising of living standards and reduction of poverty
Where we are currently as a nation in terms of growth and development aimed to achieve the macroeconomic objectives of economic stability, low unemployment, low inflation and balanced of payment equilibrium; but the internal problems of insecurity, insurgency and banditry,terrorism, corruption, mismanagement and religion intolerances in Nigeria have hampered and slowed the country’s goals and objectives. Since 1960 that Nigeria gained independence, she seeks to achieve economic development which could translate to the well being of her people interms of quality of life but the problems enumerated above have negated achieving these objectives. Nigeria has experienced economic growth over the years and yet no development.
For instance, our economic growth kept on increasing from -1.6% in 2016 to 0.8% in 2017, 1.9% in 2018 and has increase to 2.29% in 2019 which is the most increased growth since 2015 (CBN bulletin). It is sad to note that despite these growths, the citizens are still experiencing low standard of living and low quality of life. The levels of poverty, unemployment and inequality are increasing every day.

UKWUEZE DESTINY AMARACHI
2018/242416
Economics

1 Dudley Seers, first Director of IDS, argued that “the focus on national income as a target for achieving poverty reduction avoided the real problems of development” and recommended “redefining how development was measured”. In this article, he made policy recommendations that focused on education, population growth, and political independence in order to better handle development issues.According to Seers, “there is no real ‘growth'” when the advantages of progress and technology exclusively benefit a select group of individuals in the industrialized world who are already affluent.Additionally, “statistics agencies would provide more suitable information if governments become more interested in social metrics” Evidently, the Indian government wanted to include such policies in its National House.

2 The government budget, as well as the nation’s policies for reducing poverty, must be supported in a sustainable, noninflationary way to preserve macroeconomic stability.Iterative methods are used in the creation and integration of a nation’s macroeconomic policy and strategy for reducing poverty.Prior to costing and financing poverty reduction strategies within the overall budget in a noninflationary way, poverty reduction strategies must first be articulated (which means the objectives and policies must be specified).However, the amount of financing, much of which will be on favorable terms, is not always set during this process:In the same way that capital projects undertaken by the government increase employment and income for the people, thereby reducing poverty, and provide productive and social amenities and resources to the people in an economy, leading to economic development, efficient resource allocation from area of surplus to area of deficit ensures an increase in the standard of living.

3 yes
The process of increasing human freedom is development.The improvement of freedoms that enable people to lead lives in which they have a cause to live” is what it is.Thus “progress involves the removal of key sources of unfreedom: poverty as well as tyranny, low economic possibilities as well as systematic social deprivation, neglect of public amenities as well as intolerance or overactivity of repressive authorities”.

4 The central place of women in society has always safeguarded a country’s stability, advancement, and long-term growth.They play the function of – Mothers: Women, particularly mothers, have the most influence on dietary and meal decisions for the family.Women also self-report taking more action to maintain the health and nutrition of their children.
_ caretakers:Primary guardians of children and the elderly exist in every nation on earth.
._Farmers:Women make up 43% of the agricultural labor force globally, with certain nations seeing a climb to 70%.
_Educators:Unquestionably, women played a role in a society’s shift from a pre-literate to a literate state.
_Workforce:Nowadays, women make up 45.4% of the worldwide workforce on average. A community can become a participant in the national economy by utilizing the official and informal work of women, which can change it from a largely autonomous society.
_Entrepreneur and teachers:It has long been recognized that women contribute significantly to societal advancement and the stability, development, and long-term growth of nations. In the house, women are often the decision-makers.
5. A theoretical framework known as the capacity approach makes the following two normative claims:
_first :The idea that having the choice to pursue happiness has moral priority.
_second:The capabilities and functioning of persons should be considered when defining well-being.The doings and beings that people can achieve if they so desire include things like being well-fed, getting married, educated, and traveling, as well as being well-clothed and mobile and able to participate in community life. As opposed to merely formal rights and freedoms, capabilities denote the freedoms that have been freed from any potential barriers. They are also referred to as real or substantive freedoms
6 There are three core values of development:
(i) sustenance
(ii) self- esteem
.(iii) freedom.
Sustenance: Sustenance is the capacity to satisfy a person’s fundamental requirements. Without a few essential requirements, life would be impossible for everyone.Food, housing, health, and security are among these fundamental need.
Self-esteem is the belief in one’s own abilities or value. Self-esteem includes one’s self-perceptions as well as emotional states including joy, anguish, pride, and shame.
Self_esteem: Self-esteem, or the conviction that one is not deserving of being treated as a tool by others to further their own objectives, is a second essential element of a good existence. Owing to the importance placed on material values in developed nations, developed nations are now increasingly the only ones who are considered worthy and seen as technologically and economically powerful.

Freedom from Servitude: As he came to the conclusion that “the advantage of economic expansion is not that riches promotes happiness, but that it widens the range of human choice,” Arthur Lewis emphasized the connection between economic progress and freedom from servitude.A person who is wealthy may be able to exert more control over the natural world and his or her physical surroundings than one who is still in poverty.They also have more discretionary freedom as a result.
7. We’ve all heard the adage that happiness is something you can’t buy. However a recent study in the journal Applied Research in Quality of Life suggests that your perspective on wealth and materialism may have a big impact on how content and happy you are in life.Buying into “happiness materialism” — the idea that having money indicates having a happy life — is usually problematic because it diverts time, resources, and money from other areas of life that are crucial to current life satisfaction, like family, work, and health, according to the study’s authors.
But according to experts, focusing on “success materialism”—the notion that having money indicates success—increases people’s “economic motivation,” or their desire to work and raise their standard of living.People may feel happier with their current life and more optimistic about the future if they view success through that perspective.The way people view success and their lives may change as a result of this straightforward mentality change, but there are undoubtedly other factors at work as well. For instance, although the particular impact of income on life satisfaction was not examined in this study, scholars concur that this factor affects people’s happiness as well.According to a 2010 Princeton University study, happiness and wealth are correlated up to a point of around $75,000 per year. The study discovered that while happiness does not rise with income above $75,000 per year, it does so with income below that level.
Jiao noted in the press release that it’s crucial to remember the things that make you happy but don’t cost money most of all. She listed them: “Family, friends, your health, lifelong learning, and new experiences.

8 Economic development is a broader idea than economic growth. It is an increase in a nation’s actual level of national output, which can be brought on by improvements in resource quality (through education, for example), resource quantity, technological advancements, or, in another way, the value of the goods and services produced by every sector of the economy. A country’s GDP growth can be used to gauge economic growth (gross domestic product).Economic development is a normative term, meaning that it pertains to people’s moral sensibilities (right and wrong, good and bad). According to Michael Todaro, economic progress entails higher living standards, better self-esteem requirements, freedom from persecution, and more options.
The Human Development Index, which takes into consideration life expectancy and literacy rates that have an impact on productivity and may contribute to economic growth, is the most accurate way to gauge development.Additionally, it results in the expansion of opportunities in the fields of employment, education, healthcare, and environmental preservation. It suggests a rise in each citizen’s per capita income.
The scale of the informal economy is not taken into consideration by economic growth.The black economy, which is unrecorded economic activity, is another name for the informal economy. Those with low standards of living are helped by development to find decent work and housing. Economic growth ignores the use up of natural resources, which can result in pollution, congestion, and sickness.Yet, development focuses on sustainability, which involves addressing existing needs without jeopardizing those of the future. With rising pressure from global warming, these environmental repercussions are becoming a bigger issue for governments.
Economic development requires economic growth, but it is not a sufficient prerequisite in and of itself. With this, I can assert that progress in Nigeria is incredibly slow and the country is underdeveloped.

UKWUEZE DESTINY AMARACHI
2018/242416
Economics

1 Dudley Seers, first Director of IDS, argued that “the focus on national income as a target for achieving poverty reduction avoided the real problems of development” and recommended “redefining how development was measured”. In this article, he made policy recommendations that focused on education, population growth, and political independence in order to better handle development issues.According to Seers, “there is no real ‘growth'” when the advantages of progress and technology exclusively benefit a select group of individuals in the industrialized world who are already affluent.Additionally, “statistics agencies would provide more suitable information if governments become more interested in social metrics” Evidently, the Indian government wanted to include such policies in its National House.

2 The government budget, as well as the nation’s policies for reducing poverty, must be supported in a sustainable, noninflationary way to preserve macroeconomic stability.Iterative methods are used in the creation and integration of a nation’s macroeconomic policy and strategy for reducing poverty.Prior to costing and financing poverty reduction strategies within the overall budget in a noninflationary way, poverty reduction strategies must first be articulated (which means the objectives and policies must be specified).However, the amount of financing, much of which will be on favorable terms, is not always set during this process:In the same way that capital projects undertaken by the government increase employment and income for the people, thereby reducing poverty, and provide productive and social amenities and resources to the people in an economy, leading to economic development, efficient resource allocation from area of surplus to area of deficit ensures an increase in the standard of living.

3 yes
The process of increasing human freedom is development.The improvement of freedoms that enable people to lead lives in which they have a cause to live” is what it is.Thus “progress involves the removal of key sources of unfreedom: poverty as well as tyranny, low economic possibilities as well as systematic social deprivation, neglect of public amenities as well as intolerance or overactivity of repressive authorities”.

4 The central place of women in society has always safeguarded a country’s stability, advancement, and long-term growth.They play the function of – Mothers: Women, particularly mothers, have the most influence on dietary and meal decisions for the family.Women also self-report taking more action to maintain the health and nutrition of their children.
_ caretakers:Primary guardians of children and the elderly exist in every nation on earth.
._Farmers:Women make up 43% of the agricultural labor force globally, with certain nations seeing a climb to 70%.
_Educators:Unquestionably, women played a role in a society’s shift from a pre-literate to a literate state.
_Workforce:Nowadays, women make up 45.4% of the worldwide workforce on average. A community can become a participant in the national economy by utilizing the official and informal work of women, which can change it from a largely autonomous society.
_Entrepreneur and teachers:It has long been recognized that women contribute significantly to societal advancement and the stability, development, and long-term growth of nations. In the house, women are often the decision-makers.
5. A theoretical framework known as the capacity approach makes the following two normative claims:
_first :The idea that having the choice to pursue happiness has moral priority.
_second:The capabilities and functioning of persons should be considered when defining well-being.The doings and beings that people can achieve if they so desire include things like being well-fed, getting married, educated, and traveling, as well as being well-clothed and mobile and able to participate in community life. As opposed to merely formal rights and freedoms, capabilities denote the freedoms that have been freed from any potential barriers. They are also referred to as real or substantive freedoms
6 There are three core values of development:
(i) sustenance
(ii) self- esteem
.(iii) freedom.
Sustenance: Sustenance is the capacity to satisfy a person’s fundamental requirements. Without a few essential requirements, life would be impossible for everyone.Food, housing, health, and security are among these fundamental need.
Self-esteem is the belief in one’s own abilities or value. Self-esteem includes one’s self-perceptions as well as emotional states including joy, anguish, pride, and shame.
Self_esteem: Self-esteem, or the conviction that one is not deserving of being treated as a tool by others to further their own objectives, is a second essential element of a good existence. Owing to the importance placed on material values in developed nations, developed nations are now increasingly the only ones who are considered worthy and seen as technologically and economically powerful.

Freedom from Servitude: As he came to the conclusion that “the advantage of economic expansion is not that riches promotes happiness, but that it widens the range of human choice,” Arthur Lewis emphasized the connection between economic progress and freedom from servitude.A person who is wealthy may be able to exert more control over the natural world and his or her physical surroundings than one who is still in poverty.They also have more discretionary freedom as a result.
7. We’ve all heard the adage that happiness is something you can’t buy. However a recent study in the journal Applied Research in Quality of Life suggests that your perspective on wealth and materialism may have a big impact on how content and happy you are in life.Buying into “happiness materialism” — the idea that having money indicates having a happy life — is usually problematic because it diverts time, resources, and money from other areas of life that are crucial to current life satisfaction, like family, work, and health, according to the study’s authors.
But according to experts, focusing on “success materialism”—the notion that having money indicates success—increases people’s “economic motivation,” or their desire to work and raise their standard of living.People may feel happier with their current life and more optimistic about the future if they view success through that perspective.The way people view success and their lives may change as a result of this straightforward mentality change, but there are undoubtedly other factors at work as well. For instance, although the particular impact of income on life satisfaction was not examined in this study, scholars concur that this factor affects people’s happiness as well.According to a 2010 Princeton University study, happiness and wealth are correlated up to a point of around $75,000 per year. The study discovered that while happiness does not rise with income above $75,000 per year, it does so with income below that level.
Jiao noted in the press release that it’s crucial to remember the things that make you happy but don’t cost money most of all. She listed them: “Family, friends, your health, lifelong learning, and new experiences.

8 Economic development is a broader idea than economic growth. It is an increase in a nation’s actual level of national output, which can be brought on by improvements in resource quality (through education, for example), resource quantity, technological advancements, or, in another way, the value of the goods and services produced by every sector of the economy. A country’s GDP growth can be used to gauge economic growth (gross domestic product).Economic development is a normative term, meaning that it pertains to people’s moral sensibilities (right and wrong, good and bad). According to Michael Todaro, economic progress entails higher living standards, better self-esteem requirements, freedom from persecution, and more options.
The Human Development Index, which takes into consideration life expectancy and literacy rates that have an impact on productivity and may contribute to economic growth, is the most accurate way to gauge development.Additionally, it results in the expansion of opportunities in the fields of employment, education, healthcare, and environmental preservation. It suggests a rise in each citizen’s per capita income.
The scale of the informal economy is not taken into consideration by economic growth.The black economy, which is unrecorded economic activity, is another name for the informal economy. Those with low standards of living are helped by development to find decent work and housing. Economic growth ignores the use up of natural resources, which can result in pollution, congestion, and sickness.Yet, development focuses on sustainability, which involves addressing existing needs without jeopardizing those of the future. With rising pressure from global warming, these environmental repercussions are becoming a bigger issue for governments.
Economic development requires economic growth, but it is not a sufficient prerequisite in and of itself. With this, I can assert that progress in Nigeria is incredibly slow and the country is underdeveloped.

Udeogwu precious kosarachi
Economics/philosophy
2019/244167
ECO 361 QUIZ
Precious.udeogwu.244167@unn.edu.ng

1. Professor Dudley Seers argues that development is about outcomes ie development occurs with the reduction and elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment within a growing economy. Discuss

What Professor Dudley means here is that we can’t have a positive development in an economy without the elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment. According to him,when an economy have a higher percentage of unemployment level,there will be no way for economic growth or development. The higher the opportunity for equality, the higher the chances of development. Ceteris paribus. Although certain factors hinders the development of a country such as political factors,when the government of a country is not being productive, even if there’s a growth in the economy, there eill still be a stagnation of development and their will be nothing to geer up development. Hence development and growth are not the same thing.
Seer went further to highlight some of the objectives for the development and growth of an economy. These are;
That family incomes should be adequate to provide a subsistence package of food, shelter, clothing, and footwear.
That jobs should be available to all family heads, not only because this will ensure that distribution of income will generally achieve subsistence consumption levels, but also because a job is something without which personality cannot develop.
That access to education should be increased and literacy ratios raised.
That the populace should be given an opportunity to participate in government.
That national independence should be achieved in the sense that the views of other governments do not largely predetermine one’s own government’s decisiions

2)Apart from a rise in output, Economic Development involves changes in composition of output, shift in the allocation of productive resources, and elimination or reduction of poverty, inequalities and unemployment. Clearly discuss the above assertion.
Economic development is a critical component that drives economic growth in an economy, creating new job opportunities and facilitating an improved quality of life that includes increased access to opportunities created by economic growth for existing and future residents
When we talk of economic development, we are not just talking about growth alone but a larger increments in sustenance of man and his environment.economic development as a shift in the location of productive resources and elimination or reduction of poverty, inequality and unemployment,it is under that when an economy when there is a development in an economy the productive resources is diversified in the sense that it is no longer in one angle but various aspects of the economy tends to benefit from it. again as a reduction in poverty level when an economy develop wealth it is multiplied and more job opportunities are created, thereby ushering in enough room for employment which hereby makes all labour efficient for employment.
Inequality amongst government and the people is one of the Major contributors of a decrease in productivity of a country in an economy.added with mismanagement of fund by the government or a system of governance where rulership is by the Minorities,who are wealthy,this brings About Nothing Else but stagnation in economic growth and development. So as professor Dudley has stated total elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment who bring about development and the country gross national product will be multiplied.

3. In the words of Amartya Sen “Development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom, poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systematic social deprivation neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or over activity of repressive states. Do you agree? Explain in details
Yes I agree.
When we talk development we talk freedom an economy can only develop Wendy Matthews are able to exercise their right it is an expression of one’s right that man becomes creative and thereby limit the possibilities of unemployment according to amartya sen it is because people were deprived of some starting right and privileges that brings about under development for an example countries like Asia and North Africa their is capability deprivation of women involvement in political and some socio economic affairs, if this is so, it means that the larger population which comprises of women are not participants in the general activities of the country making them to becomes a liability to the country instead of profit.because an asset when un-used make use of to get a better outfit .so when these women are being deprived of some certain rights and privileges to exercise themselves to be creative to be proactive the end of being a burden to the male gender thereby promotion of poverty ,less freedom and unemployment.

4) Critically discuss the Central Role of Women in the National Development

Women are the set of human beings that belongs to the female gender. They play the role of mothers, caretakers in family affairs, farmers, educators, entrepreneurs, teachers, e.t.c. It is historic that women play significant roles in societal development and ensure the stability, progress, and long-term development of nations. Women also play the role of decision-makers in homes. Globally, women contribute immensely to agricultural development, comprising about 43% of the world’s agricultural labor force. In some countries, the number of women involved in the agricultural labor force increases to over 70%. Available records indicate that in Africa alone, 80% of agricultural production comes from small farmers, most of whom are rural women. It is noteworthy that agriculture is the bedrock of national development as the best approach to food security, poverty reduction, job creation, and economic stability.

At home, women, notably mothers, play the role in decision-making about family meal planning and diet. Women also initiate and preserve the nutritional and healthcare programs of children at home. In addition, women are not only caring for their children at home but are also the primary caretakers of both children and elders in every country of the world. International studies indicate that women lead in finding solutions to the problems occasioned by a change of political and economic organizations in countries, thereby helping the family adjust to new realities and challenges. Indeed, women are the initiators who play important role in facilitating changes in family life. The UN Women Watch organization asserts that ” rural women play a key role in supporting their households and communities in achieving food and nutritional security, generating income, and improving rural livelihoods and overall wellbeing.

As educators, the role or contribution of women to society’s transition from pre-literate to the literate period is highly significant. Basic education is key to a nation’s ability to develop and achieve sustainable policies and programs. It is evident that education helps to improve agricultural productivity, enhances the status of girls and women, stabilizes population growth rates, enhances environmental protection and, increases the standard of living. It is the mother at home who most often urges children of both genders to attend and stay in school. The role of women is at the front end of the chain of improvement, leading to the family and the community’s long term capacity.

5) Clearly discuss some Important “Beings” and “Doings” in Capability to Function

Sen argues that people’s well-being depends upon what they are actually capable of doing and being. Thus, he focused on something more direct such as human functionings and capabilities in terms of which the quality of life is analyzed. In other words, a person’s capabilities offer a perspective in terms of which his advantages and disadvantages can be reasonably assessed – that makes it highly appropriate for analyzing poverty.
Functionings: Functionings are what people really “do and are”. They are achievements of people: they are ‘doings’ or ‘beings’. Taken together, these doings and beings – achieved functionings – give value to life. The functioings may include being well-nourished, having shelter, able to work, rest; or being literate or healthy; being part of a community or group; being respected, and so on.

Achieving a functioning (for example, being adequately nourished) with a given bundle of commodities (say, bread or rice) depends on a range of personal and social factors (e.g. age, gender, activity levels, health, access to medical services, nutritional knowledge and education, climatic conditions, and so on). A functioning therefore refers to the use a person makes of whatever is at his/her command.

Capabilities: Capabilities are options to achieve valuable functionings; it reflects his freedom to choose. So, capabilities refer to the set of valuable functionings that a person has effective access to. They are best thought to be the equivalent of a person’s opportunity set. In nutshell, capabilities are made up of two things: functionings and the freedom to choose from them.

6)
Discuss the three Core Values of Development with relevant example

The three core value of Economic development was postulated by Denis Goulet.

They are;
SUSTENANCE
SELF ESTEEM
FREEDOM from SERVITUDE
Sustenance
The life-sustaining basic human needs include food, shelter, health and protection. When any one of these is absent or in critically short supply, a condition of absolute “underdevelopment” exists.

Self-esteem:

A second universal component of good life is self- esteem- a sense of worth and self-respect- of not being used as a tool by others for their own ends. Due to the significance attached to material values in developed nations, worthiness and esteem are now-a-days increasingly conferred only on countries that possess economic wealth and technological power- those that have developed.Now-a-days the Third World seeks development in order to gain the esteem which is denied to societies living in a state of disgraceful “underdevelopment.” … Development is legitimized as a goal because it is an important, perhaps even an indispensable, way of gaining esteem.6

Freedom from Servitude:

Arthur Lewis stressed the relationship between economic growth and freedom from servitude when he concluded that “the advantage of economic growth is not that wealth increases happiness, but that it increases the range of human choice.” Wealth can enable a person to gain greater control over nature and his physical environment than they would have if they remained poor.

It also gives them the freedom to choose greater leisure. The concept of human freedom should encompass various components of political freedom, freedom of expression, political participation and equality of opportunity.

7)
Some scholars have argued that happiness has a direct correlation with more income while others disagree with the assertion.

For me,I would say “Happiness increases with income, to a point”
One of the most well-known findings in the economic study of happiness is that, on average, happiness increases with income, but at a certain point diminishing returns set in.
In other words, money can only buy health care.
4) It refers to an increase over time in a country’s real output of goods and services (GNP) or real output per capita income. Economic development includes process and policies by which a country improves the social, economic and political well-being of its people.

5)Economic growth focuses on production of goods and services.
Economic development focuses on distribution of resources.

6)Economic growth relates a gradual increase in one of the components of GDP; consumption, government spending, investment or net exports.
Economic development relates to growth of human capital indexes and decrease in inequality.It is concerned with how people are affected.

7) Economic growth is single dimensional in nature as it only focuses on income of the people.
Economic development is multi-dimensional in nature as it focuses on both income and improvement of living standards of the people.
Hence,Nigeria as a country is still in the level of economic growth and not the developmental aspect because the components of growth has not established in the country,the country still battles with instability in the economy, inflation and deflation and political instability.

NDUUL MICHAEL TERUNGWA
2019/246514
ÉCO MAJOR

Question 1.

Michael Todaro specified three objectives of development:
1.Life sustaining goods and services: To increase the availability and widen the distribution of basic life-sustaining goods such as food, shelter, health and protection.
2.Higher incomes: To raise levels of living, including, in addition to higher incomes, the provision of more jobs, better education, and greater attention to cultural and human values, all of which will serve not only to enhance material well-being but also to generate greater individual and national self-esteem
3.Freedom to make economic and social choices: To expand the range of economic and social choices available to individuals and nations by freeing them from servitude and dependence not only in relation to other people and nation-states but also to the forces of ignorance and human misery.
Note the emphasis placed on cultural and human values, self-esteem and freedom from ignorance; it is important to remember that development is about more than advancing economic growth. Many economists believe development should be less about growth, more about inclusive well-beingand about building capacities and resilience in a fast-changing and unpredictable world.The most common measurement of development is the Human Development Index published each year by the United Nations Development Programme .Dudley Sears has defined development as “the reduction and elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment within a growing economy”

question 2.

The HDI is a summary measurement of basic achievement levels in human development. The computed HDI of a country is an average of indexes of each of the life aspects that are examined: knowledge and understanding, a long and healthy life, and an acceptable standard of living. Each of the components is normalized to scale between 0 and 1, and then the geometric mean of the three components is calculated.2
The health aspect of the HDI is measured by the life expectancy, as calculated at the time of birth, in each country, and normalized so that this component is equal to 0 when life expectancy is 20 and equal to 1 when life expectancy is 85.3
Education is measured on two levels: the mean years of schooling for residents of a country, and the expected years of schooling that a child has at the average age for starting school. These are each separately normalized so that both 15 mean years of schooling and 18 years of expected schooling equal 1, and a simple mean of the two is calculated.3
The economic metric chosen to represent the standard of living is GNI per capita based on purchasing power parity (PPP), a common metric used to reflect average income. The standard of living is normalized so that it is equal to 1 when GNI per capita is $75,000 and equal to 0 when GNI per capita is $100

question 3.

After World War II a number of developing countries attained independence from their former colonial rulers. One of the common claims made by leaders of independence movements was that colonialism had been responsible for perpetuating low living standards in the colonies. Thus economic development after independence became an objective of policy not only because of the humanitarian desire to raise living standards but also because political promises had been made, and failure to make progress toward development would, it was feared, be interpreted as a failure of the independence movement. Developing countries in Latin America and elsewhere that had not been, or recently been, colonies took up the analogousbelief that economic domination by the industrial countries had thwarted their development, and they, too, joined the quest for rapid growth. At that early period, theorizing about development, and about policies to attain development, accepted the assumption that the policies of the industrial countries were to blame for the poverty of the developing countries. Memories of the Great Depression, when developing countries’ terms of trade had deteriorated markedly, producing sharp reductions in per capita incomes, haunted many policymakers. Finally, even in the developed countries, the Keynesian legacyattached great importance to investment.
In this milieu, it was thought that a “shortage of capital” was the cause of underdevelopment. It followed that policy should aim at an accelerated rate of investment. Since most countries with low per capita incomes were also heavily agricultural (and imported most of the manufactured goods consumed domestically), it was thought that accelerated investment in industrialization and the development of manufacturing industries to supplant imports through “import substitution” was the path to development. Moreover, there was a fundamental distrust of markets, and a major role was therefore assigned to government in allocating investments. Distrust of markets extended especially to the international economy.

question 4.

1.Job creation
Economic developers provide critical assistance and information to companies that create jobs in our economy. We help to connect new-to-market and existing companies with the resources and partners needed to expand, such as industry partners like CareerSource Central Florida and the Florida High Tech Corridor, utilities, and local government partners.
2. Industry diversification
A core part of economic development works to diversify the economy, reducing a region’s vulnerability to a single industry. While tourism plays an important role in creating jobs in the Orlando region, economic development efforts help to grow industries outside of tourism, including advanced manufacturing, aerospace and defense, aviation, autonomous vehicles, biotechnology and pharmaceuticals, business services, gaming, entertainment technology, financial technology, life sciences and healthcare, logistics and distribution, medical technology, and innovative technology.
3. Business retention and expansion
A large percentage of jobs in the Orlando economy are created by existing companies that are expanding their operations. The Partnership’s economic development team executed numerous business retention and expansion visits to local companies just last year to assist with their operational needs.
4. Economy fortification
Economic development helps to protect the local economy from economic downturns by attracting and expanding the region’s major employers. For example, when the COVID-19 pandemic heavily impacted the global leisure and hospitality industry, many technology companies transitioned focus to clients in the region’s modeling, simulation and training sector.
5. Increased tax revenue
The increased presence of companies in the region translates to increased tax revenue for community projectsand local infrastructure. Economic development can also support major job creation initiatives such as the semiconductor research and development campus NeoCity, positioning the 500-acre development opportunity for critical funding for domestic semiconductor research and manufacturing through advocacy for the CHIPS and FABS Acts.
6. Improved quality of life
Better infrastructure and more jobs improve the economy of the region and raise the standard of living for its residents. Quality of place is more important than ever to attract a large talent pool in the era of increased remote workers. in addition, inclusive economic development works to support the community’s quality of life through initiatives such as supporting the regional transportation network, affordable housing, innovation and entrepreneurshipas well as upskilling opportunities for the local workforce. These initiatives help to provide access and capabilities for the existing workforce to take advantage of the new high-wage job opportunities created by economic development efforts.

Question 5

Alfred Sauvy (31 October 1898 – 30 October 1990)[1] was a demographer, anthropologist and historian of the French economy. Sauvy coined the term Third World (“Tiers Monde”) in reference to countries that were unaligned with either the Communist Soviet bloc or the Capitalist NATO bloc during the Cold War.
These other terms have been criticized for a lack of accuracy and political correctness, too. For example, if some countries are “advanced,” then are other countries “backward” or “behind”? If some countries are describes as  “emerging,” what are they emerging from, and what are they becoming? When countries were referred to as “developing,” it sometimes seemed to be more of an optimistic outlook than an actual description, and referring to countries with rich and lengthy cultural, political and human inheritances as “undeveloped” seemed to put economic values ahead of all others. 
Others have used acronyms “From BRICs to  MINTs” (February 24, 2014), but looking at clusters of four countries, whether it’s Brazil, Russia, India, and China or Mexico, Indonesia, Nigeria, and Turkey, doesn’t capture the breadth of the economic shift that is occurring.
Woetzel describes how the global economy is changing in response to four shifts: the rapid march of technological progress; the emerging “superstar” phenomenon, which is exacerbating inequalities; the rapidly changing dynamics of China’s economy; and the evolving nature of globalization itself. He draws on a report that he co-authored with Jacques Bughin, “Navigating a world of disruption” (McKinsey Global Institute, January 2019),  which describes the range and scope of economic success stories in countries around the world.

Question 6

Sustenance: Sustenance refers to the basic needs of a human being without which survival would not be possible. These needs include food, shelter, security and good health. Shortage of any of these necessities implies a situation of severe underdevelopment of the economy. Development, therefore, must lead to the reduction of these shortages and fulfil these basic needs of the population. The benefits of growth must be accompanied by a reduction in this absolute poverty situation. As a result, improvement in the quality of overall life in an economy is bound to occur.
Self-esteem: Every individual is entitled to a sense of self-worth or self-respect. Although the nature of self-esteem may change with society or the economy, the basic idea remains the same. All people have the right to a life of dignity and honour. Respect, however, is often attached to wealth and the underdevelopment of an economy can be a burden on people’s self-esteem. Hence to promote self-worth, development must be spread across the whole economy and not just certain sections within it.
Freedom: Freedom refers to not just freedom from servitude, but also from discrimination, oppressive beliefs and practices. Equal opportunity and freedom in every aspect of the social, legal, cultural and political situation are necessary for every individual. Everyone must be free to choose and have control over their own life and actions. Growth without freedom has been observed in many nations, which defeats the purpose of development.

Question 7

Does money buy happiness? This question has received extensive empirical attention since Richard Easterlin’s seminal work in 1974 (e.g. 1–3; see 4–5for reviews). Easterlin (6) looked at results from 30 national surveys in 20 countries and concluded that “there is a clear indication that income and happiness are positively associated” (p. 99), and that “in every single survey, those in the highest status group were happier, on the average, than those in the lowest status group” (p. 100). Diener and Oishi (7) examined the income–happiness correlation in 40 countries and found that the mean income–happiness correlation was 0.13. According to Diener and Biswas-Diener (4), the income–happiness correlation in a national survey ranged from 0.12 to 0.18 in the USA, 0.06 to 0.15 in West Germany, and 0.17 to 0.27 in the Russian Federation. A recent meta-analysis of 335 studies found that the mean income–happiness correlation was 0.23 (8). Inglehart and colleagues (9) analyzed data from 52 countries and found that the income–happiness correlation was stronger in poorer countries than in richer countries. That is, money seems to buy more happiness in poorer countries than in richer countries. In this light, it is interesting to note that the income–happiness correlation was 0.45 among 83 residents in the slums of Calcutta (10). The main idea is that among those who are struggling to meet their basic needs, more money means greater access to basic goods (e.g. drinking water, food, shelter). In contrast, it is believed that once the basic needs are met, more money does not necessarily help increase one’s happiness (9, 11).Interestingly, recent research on money and happiness found that money seems to buy more happiness even among wealthy individuals whose basic needs are met. For instance, Killingsworth (12) analyzed the experience sampling data (i.e. momentary reports of happiness) from 33,391 employed, working-age adults living in the USA and found that self-reported happiness continues to increase as the participants’ household income increases, even beyond $120,000. Moreover, Jebb and colleagues (13) analyzed the data from 164 countries and found that the income–happiness correlation was larger in wealthier countries rather than in poorer countries.

Question 8

Economic growth means an increase in real national income / national output.
Economic development means an improvement in the quality of life and living standards, e.g. measures of literacy, life-expectancy and health care.
Ceteris paribus, we would expect economic growth to enable more economic development. Higher real GDP enables more to be spent on health care and education.
However, the link is not guaranteed. The proceeds of economic growth could be wasted or retained by a small wealthy elite.
What is Economic Growth?
Economic growth can be referred to as the increase that is witnessed in the monetary value of all the goods and services produced in the economy during a time period. It is a type of quantitative measure that reflects the potential increase in the number of business transactions taking place in the economy.
It can be measured in terms of the increase in the aggregate market value of additional goods and services produced by using economic concepts such as GDP and GNP.
Economic growth is a narrow concept when compared to economic development.
Also Check: Human Capital on Economic Growth
What is Economic Development?
Economic development refers to the process by which the overall health, well-being, and academic level of the general population of a nation improves. It also refers to the improved production volume due to the advancements of technology.
It is the qualitative improvement in the life of the citizens of a country and is most appropriately determined by the Human Development Index (HDI). The overall development of a country is based on many parameters such as the creation of job opportunities, technological advancements, standard of living, living conditions, per capita income, quality of life, improvement in self-esteem needs, GDP, industrial and infrastructural development, etc.

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS

AN ASSIGNMENT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILOMENT FOR THE REQUIREMENT OF THE COURSE: UNDERSTANDING THE MEANING OF DEVELOPMENT (ECO 361)

BY
UCHEAMA CALISTA NGOZI
2019/243039

TOPICS:
NO. 1 – ACCORDING TO PROF. MICHAEL TODARO, THE THREE OBJECTIVES OF DEVELOPMENT INCLUDE, PRODUCING MORE LIFE SUSTAINING NECESSITIES SUCH AS FOOD, SHELTER AND HEALTH CARE AND BROADENING THEIR DISTRIBUTION, PRAISING STANDARDS OF LIVING AND INDIVIDUAL SELF-ESTEEM, AND EXPANDING ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CHOICE AND REDUCING FEAR. DISCUSS ELABORATELY.

NO. 2 – MEASURING DEVELOPMENT IS A TEDIOUS PROCESS AND MANY DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES HAVE TRIED TO DEVELOP INDICATORS TO MEASURE DEVELOPMENT ACCURATELY. AGAINST THIS BACKGROUND, CLEARLY DISCUSS THE SET OF INDICES DEVELOPED BY THE UN AND OTHER GLOBAL AGENCIES ON HOW TO MEASURE DEVELOPMENT.

NO. 3 – DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS EMERGED AS A BRANCH OF ECONOMICS BECAUSE: ECONOMISTS AFTER WORLD WAR II BECOME CONCERNED ABOUT THE LOW STANDARD OF LIVING IN SO MANY COUNTRIES OF LATIN, AMERICA, AFRICA AND ASIA. DISCUSS.

NO. 4 – MANY FOLKS STUDY DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS FOR MANY REASONS. DISCUSS.

NO. 5 – THE FRENCH DEMOGRAPHER ALFRED SAUVY COINED THE EXPRESSION (“TIERS MONDE” IN FRENCH) IN 1952 BY ANALOGY WITH THE “THIRD ESTATE,” (THE COMMONERS OF FRANCE BEFORE AND DURING THE FRENCH REVOLUTION) – AS OPPOSED TO PRIESTS AND NOBLES, COMPRISING THE FIRST AND SECOND ESTATES RESPECTIVELY. LIKE THE THIRD ESTATE, WROTE SAUVY, THE THIRD WORLD IS NOTHING, AND IT “WANTS TO BE SOMETHING”. CLEARLY DISCUSS AND ANALYSE THIS ASSERTION IN DETAILS.

JANUARY, 2023.
NO. 1

Economic development is a broad term that does not have a single, unique definition. In this introductory study note we look at some interpretations of the meaning of economic development. Economist Michael Todaro specified three objectives of development:
Life sustaining goods and services: To increase the availability and widen the distribution of basic life-sustaining goods such as food, shelter, health and protection.
Higher incomes: To raise levels of living, including, in addition to higher incomes, the provision of more jobs, better education, and greater attention to cultural and human values, all of which will serve not only to enhance material well-being but also to generate greater individual and national self-esteem
Freedom to make economic and social choices: To expand the range of economic and social choices available to individuals and nations by freeing them from servitude and dependence not only in relation to other people and nation-states but also to the forces of ignorance and human misery.

Note the emphasis placed on ‘cultural and human values’, ‘self-esteem’ and freedom from ignorance; it is important to remember that development is about much more than advancing economic growth.

Development is not purely an economic phenomenon but rather a multi-dimensional process involving reorganization and reorientation of entire economic and social system
Development is process of improving the quality of all human lives with three equally important aspects.

The field of economic development is versatile and has much to contribute regarding these differing scenarios. Thus the text also underlines common features exhibited by a majority of developing nations using the insights of the study of economic development. The few countries that have essentially completed the transformation to become developed economies such as South Korea are also examined as potential models for other developing countries to follow. Both theory and empirical analysis in development economics have made major strides, and the Eleventh Edition brings these ideas and findings to students.

Development is the process of structural transformation. Development must therefore be conceived of as a multidimensional process involving major changes in social structures, popular attitudes, and national institutions, as well as the acceleration of economic growth, the reduction of inequality, and the eradication of poverty. Development, in its essence, must represent the whole gamut of change by which an entire social system, tuned to the diverse basic needs and evolving aspirations of individuals and social groups within that system, moves away from a condition of life widely perceived as unsatisfactory toward a situation or condition of life regarded as materially and spiritually better. No one has identified the human goals of economic development as well as Amartya Sen, perhaps the leading thinker on the meaning of development.

NO. 2
There are many ways to distinguish between developing and developed countries and measuring development. However, the issue of measuring development has been controversial and our thinking has evolved over time.

The first approach uses indicators and official data to measure progress against a number of internationally agreed commitments (section 5.1). Hence, whether a trend is considered to be good progress depends primarily on the level of ambition in the original goal/target setting, which is not necessarily rooted in scientific or objective criteria.

The second approach is based on aggregate indicators of sustainable development progress that have been suggested by analysts and scientists. This approach is also primarily based on official data. The aggregate indicators differ greatly in terms of their focus, reflecting the different perspectives and values of the individual analsts that created them. This report illustrates and quantifies a progress index that is a simple and minimal adjustment to the GDP.

The third approach complements the first and the second approaches. It complements official data from surveys with highly spatially disaggregated and temporally frequent non-official data from a variety of sources such as remote sensing, mobile telecommunication devices, road traffic, and user-based crowdsourcing. The third approach has cheaper marginal costs as it uses data already available and can more easily and more quickly fill data gaps in the poorest regions, but it is technically the most demanding (section 5.3).

Measuring sustainable development requires both simple measures that inform decision-makers about major trends and issues as well as more detailed measures to support in-depth analysis. Attention should be given to the “supply side” – how statistics and related indicators can best be constructed – as well as to the “demand side” – how these indicators can be interpreted and used most appropriately. And frameworks are needed to assess sustainability at different levels – local, national, regional and global. A popular measurement approach to sustainable development is to select and enumerate a number of indicators for each of the three dimensions – economic, environmental and social.

NO. 3

Development economics is a branch of economics which deals with economic aspects of the development process in low- and middle- income countries. Its focus is not only on methods of promoting economic development, economic growth and structural change but also on improving the potential for the mass of the population, for example, through health, education and workplace conditions, whether through public or private channels. Development economics involves the creation of theories and methods that aid in the determination of policies and practices and can be implemented at either the domestic or international level. This may involve restructuring market incentives or using mathematical methods such as intertemporal optimization for project analysis, or it may involve a mixture of quantitative and qualitative methods. Common topics include growth theory, poverty and inequality, human capital, and institutions.

Development economics is the study of transformation of economies: transformation of agrarian and rural economies to urban and modern economies, one with dominant traditional sector to one with dominant modern sector, one with population of low skills to one with high skills and one with underdeveloped and informal markets and institutions to one with developed and formal markets and institutions. It analyzes factors constraining and inhibiting the process of structural transformation and studies policies and strategies which can facilitate such transformation.

After World War II a number of developing countries attained independence from their former colonial rulers. One of the common claims made by leaders of independence movements was that colonialism had been responsible for perpetuating low living standards in the colonies. Thus economic development after independence became an objective of policy not only because of the humanitarian desire to raise living standards but also because political promises had been made, and failure to make progress toward development would, it was feared, be interpreted as a failure of the independence movement. Developing countries in Latin America and elsewhere that had not been, or recently been, colonies took up the analogous belief that economic domination by the industrial countries had thwarted their development, and they, too, joined the quest for rapid growth.

At that early period, theorizing about development, and about policies to attain development, accepted the assumption that the policies of the industrial countries were to blame for the poverty of the developing countries. Memories of the Great Depression, when developing countries’ terms of trade had deteriorated markedly, producing sharp reductions in per capita incomes, haunted many policymakers. Finally, even in the developed countries, the Keynesian legacy attached great importance to investment.

In this milieu, it was thought that a “shortage of capital” was the cause of underdevelopment. It followed that policy should aim at an accelerated rate of investment. Since most countries with low per capita incomes were also heavily agricultural (and imported most of the manufactured goods consumed domestically), it was thought that accelerated investment in industrialization and the development of manufacturing industries to supplant imports through “import substitution” was the path to development. Moreover, there was a fundamental distrust of markets, and a major role was therefore assigned to government in allocating investments. Distrust of markets extended especially to the international economy.
Experience with development changed perceptions of the process and of the policies affecting it in important ways. Nonetheless, there are significant elements of truth in some of the earlier ideas, and it is important to understand the thinking underlying them.

NO. 4

Development economics is fascinating because it shows how economic analysis can help us to understand the big themes of the 21st century – poverty and inequality, globalisation and trade, and the contrasting experience of success and failure in the economies of different regions of the world. One of the most striking characteristics of the world economy in recent decades has been the growing inequality in the distribution of resources between different parts of the world. China, the most populous country in the world, has experienced economic growth at an unprecedented rate, and India has also made substantial progress. Meanwhile, countries in sub-Saharan Africa have stagnated, and the gap in living standards continues to widen.

Development economics attempts to explore some of the economic challenges peculiar to some of the poorest countries in the world. By studying development economics, you will have the opportunity to apply the tools of economic analysis to the problems and challenges facing less-developed countries, and to begin to understand why some countries have been able to go through a process of economic and human development whilst others have languished.

Development economics refers to the analysis of challenges and opportunities in transforming an emerging economy into a developed one. Its purpose is to help developing nations identify and overcome hurdles in economic growth, such as poverty, inequality, and market failure.
The economic analysis of a low-income country seeks to improve its fiscal, economic, and social situations. It explores several strategies and theories to develop and implement policies to put the economy on the path of development. Besides focusing on the economic growth of a developing economy, it addresses problems in the healthcare, education, and employment sectors through industrial and social infrastructure development.

Development economics is a branch of economics which deals with economic aspects of the development process in low- and middle- income countries. Its focus is not only on methods of promoting economic development, economic growth and structural change but also on improving the potential for the mass of the population, for example, through health, education and workplace conditions, whether through public or private channels.
Development economics involves the creation of theories and methods that aid in the determination of policies and practices and can be implemented at either the domestic or international level. This may involve restructuring market incentives or using mathematical methods such as intertemporal optimization for project analysis, or it may involve a mixture of quantitative and qualitative methods. Common topics include growth theory, poverty and inequality, human capital, and institutions.
• Development economics means studying economic aspects of a low-income country, such as healthcare, education, labor conditions, and market changes.
• It further analyzes ways to improve fiscal, economic, and social conditions allowing an emerging economy to become a developed economy.
• It also helps developing countries identify and overcome hurdles in economic growth, such as poverty, inequality, and market failure.
• Development economists focus on developing methods and policies for the economic development of a poor economy. They analyze population growth, structural transformations and provide ways to achieve sustainable development.
• As stated already, it provides policymakers with an opportunity to analyze economic challenges faced by developing countries. This analysis primarily considers economic indicators
• Assess factors like education, healthcare, and employment conditions
• Promote international trade (import and export) among world nations
• Develop ways to achieve sustainable development
• Evaluate an economy, fix problems in it, and predict economic development
• Understand the economic effects of pandemics and natural disasters

NO. 5

Sauvy was making an analogy with the ‘third estate’, the commoners of pre-revolutionary France. Thus, the term implied that the Third World was exploited, as much as the third estate was exploited, and that, like the third estate, its destiny was a revolutionary one. A European man dividing the world in his own image does seem like a source for trouble, but Alfred Sauvy wasn’t the white chauvinist one might expect him to be when he coined the term in his 1952 essay “Trois mondes, une planète.” Inspired by the anti-colonial struggles and global peace building efforts, Sauvy recognized in the then largely colonized Tiers Monde a revolutionary bloc which could contest the existential struggle between the Cold War powers of the capitalist First World and the socialist Second World. This Third World, having the momentum of history, he described as “the most important” world, even being the “first in the chronology.” It was only this Third World which could replace “preparation for war” with “world hunger” as the number one global concern.

Next to the obvious demand of independence, the Third World wanted peace and development, but also dignity, recognition and planetary democracy. Importantly, Sauvy derived his term ‘Third World’ from the ‘Third Estate’ of pre-revolutionary France. The monarchy of the French Ancien Régime used to divide the general assembly into three estates: the First Estate representing the clergy, the Second Estate representing the aristocracy, and the Third Estate representing everyone else. While representing over 90% of the French population, the Third Estate would always be outvoted by the other estates which had equal electoral weight. Not accepting this systemic political farce, the ‘commoners’ of the Third Estate would turn against the Kingdom and form the National Assembly, signalling the beginning of the French Revolution.

Sauvy ends his essay claiming that “this Third World, ignored, exploited, despised like the Third Estate, also wants to be something.” This, he later stated, was not only in homage to the French Revolution, but was in fact a direct transposition of the famous lines in Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès’ 1789 pamphlet What is the Third Estate?:

Likewise, with the process of decolonization just taking off, the Third World was still only a concept. Like the Third Estate before the French revolution, Sauvy’s ‘Third World’ was not yet really existing in the political order, but was a future projection, a positively charged potentiality of an inevitable collective uprising. Resonating Frantz Fanon, who would later in The Wretched of the Earth proclaim that the “Third World today faces Europe like a colossal mass,” Sauvy writes: Don’t you hear on the French Riviera, the cries reaching us from the other end of the Mediterranean, from Egypt or Tunisia? Do you think it is just palace revolutions or the growls of the ambitious few, in search of space? No, no, the pressure is constantly increasing in the human boiler.

Aniebonam Juliana Nneamaka
2019/244559
Economics education.
1. The objectives of Development economics is to provide access to the basic necessities of life and improve the standard of living of the people and to boost their self esteem, an individual that is unable to provide these basic necessities for themselves find it hard to participate in what others are doing because this can make a person have low self esteem. Another objective of development economics is also to expand economic and social choice available to an individual or nation, this will help an individual or nation to be free to decide what or what not to do, but when an individual or nation is bound to do something because they don’t have other choices, it means that they are not free to choose or make decisions that are conducive for them that is why this development economics is needed to help individuals/nations that are not yet developed.
2. The UN came up with a set of indices
* The human development index (HDI)— the HDI is a summary composite measure of a country’s average achievement in three basic aspect of human development: health, knowledge and standard of living. It is a measurement of a country’s average achievement in three dimensions of human development. A long and healthy life, as measured by life expectancy at birth knowledge, as measured by mean years of schooling and expected years of schooling and a decent standard of living, as measured by GNI per Capital in PPP terms. The HDI sets a minimum and a maximum for each dimensions, called”goalpost” then shows where each country stands in relation to these goalpost, the higher a country’s human development, the higher the HDI value.
* The human poverty index(HPI)— is a composite index of poverty that focuses on deprivation in human lives, aimed at measuring poverty as a failure in capabilities in multiple dimensions, in contrast to the conventional head count measure focused on low income. The HPI was introduced in the united nations development program human development report 1997 and concentrated on deprivation in basic dimensions of life. The general index allows the calculation of percentage contribution of deprivation in different dimensions and hence to identify the dimensions whose failure affect the overall deprivation. This is important from a policy perspective. We also provide an empirical illustration of the characterized indices using cross country data for the three basic dimensions and the anthropometric indicators birth weight, height of age and nourishment.
4. The study of development economics gives us the opportunity to apply economic analysis theories and practices to develop and implement policies aimed at puting a less developed economy on the path of development. It focuses on economic variables such as G.D.P, supply and demand and market rivalry .

Ihediohamma Gloria Chiamaka
Economics
2019/246443
1. Many less developed countries including Nigeria experienced continues economic growth over the years but the such growth does not have a positive reflection in the lives of the people in terms of quality of life. Seer shifted away from such believes and propounded his theory of development with emphasis on poverty, inequality and unemployment. Thus, he used three indicators which are poverty, inequality and unemployment to cement his argument.
That if these indicators are falling then that country is experiencing development but if not, they are not experiencing development. This study thus used these indicators to critically assess the Nigeria development situation. It was discovered that all, the three indicators were all increasing instead of decreasing as Seer propounded. The study recommends that the Nigeria government should provide loans to the rural areas for investment into the agricultural sector.
Government should provide entrepreneurship program to the urban youth to tackle poverty. Also, taxing policy should be made to tax the poor more to provide infrastructures to the citizens. Investment in child’s education and also invest in
These mean that true development happened when poverty is reduced or eliminated, unemployment declining and the levels of inequality is reducing. Of course, reduction in these three development indicators will in no doubt increases the well been and quality of life of a nation’s citizens.

2. Shift in the allocation of production resources determines the rewards of the factor services. It brings about an equitable distribution of income by causing resources to be allocated in right directions. It works to ration out the existing supplies of goods and services, utilizes the economy’s resources fully and provides the means for economic development and growth.

the initial levels of economic development and income inequality matter for the reduction of poverty.
We showed that the growth elasticity of poverty decreases monotonically with the initial level of development. That is to say, under the distribution neutral assumption the higher initial level of development leads to a greater reduction in poverty at a given rate of growth.

Economic growth and development generates job opportunities and hence stronger demand for labour, the main and often the sole asset of the poor. In turn, increasing employment has been crucial in delivering higher growth.

Economic development involves inequalities and unemployment thus government should as a matter of urgency create more employment opportunities in order to absorb the teeming population of the unemployed work force in the country through modernization of the agricultural sector, bring in modern equipment in the facilities of agriculture to make the sector more attractive to all citizens despite one’s qualifications and profession. More so, the study recommends that government should apply its appropriate legislative functions to discourage gender discrimination in the labour market in order to encourage females to participate actively in the labour market. Similarly, economic diversification policies should be pursued by government as a way of creating employment opportunities and promoting economic growth of the country.

3. Development is the process of expanding human freedom. It is “the enhancement of freedoms that allow people to lead lives that they have reason to live”. Hence “development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom: poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systemic social deprivation, neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or overactivity of repressive states”.
Freedom implies not just to do something, but the capabilities to make it happen. What people can achieve (their capabilities) is influenced by “economic opportunities, political liberties, social powers, and the enabling condition of good health, basic education, and the encouragement and cultivation of initiatives”. Sen calculates that if women in Asia and North Africa were given the same health care and attention, the world would have 100 million more women

Some see freedom as a potential disturbance to political stability and development. They recommend repressive interventions of the state in stifling liberty, initiative and enterprise, and in crippling the working of the individual agency and cooperative action. Sen attacks Singapore’s Lee Kuan Yew and his theories of Asian values which are used to justify political repression. For Sen there is no such thing as Asian values in a continent with vastly disparate populations and traditions, and containing 60 per cent of the world’s population. And as Dani Rodrik said, the economic performance of authoritarian regimes is either very good or very bad – and usually very bad. Most democracies occupy the middle ground.

4 Nowadays, the role of women in the public sector as well as in supporting the welfare of the family is gaining much more attention. The objective of this lecture is to determine the role of women in the public sector and its impact on the welfare of the family. In other words, this paper is about the role and extent of women involvement in national development process. The paper examines the contributions of women to national development using examples from the civil service. Indeed, today there are a number of women in different administrative capacity. My findings reveal that women dominate in teaching and nursing professions in the country and form more than 35% of workers in other professions. The future of the civil service, especially education and health in the country seems to depend on women. However, by a contribution of factors women could contribute more to national development if deliberate efforts are made to encourage them.

In the three arms of our government, for example, we have women making major contributions in moving Nigeria forward. We have in the legislature women councillors and local government chairpersons, elected to lead the people. Also in the National Assembly we have elected women senators andwomen House of Representative members contributing in the lawmaking process. In the executive arm of government we have some ministers who are women. In the same vein there are women special advisers and special assistants to Mr. President. Likewise in the Judiciary we have women. Not long ago, the Chief Justice of the Federation was Justice Maryam Muktar Alooma. Of course, there are women justices at state and federal levels. In addition we have women lawyers, magistrates and others serving in various capacities in the judiciary. And looking at the civil service in general, we have women permanent secretaries, directors and top civil servants working hand in hand with men. Also in various ministries and local government councils women are appointed in various positions.

In various sectors of our economy we have women employed as Doctors and Nurses including auxiliary staff contributing to our health development. That is not all; we have women in our world bodies, e.g. WHO, UNESCO, UNDP, etc playing prominent roles.

In the education sector, we have had women Vice Chancellors, women Registrars, uncountable women Professors, Senior Lecturers, teachers, administrators, all contributing to educational development of the country as part of our effort in nation building.

Don’t forget that in the security set-up, we have women as army commanders, police officers, officers in SSS (State Security Service). We have women as Customs and Immigration officers, and so on. We also have women journalists serving in the mass media: television, radio, newspapers, magazines and other communication agencies. Also there are female workers in the private sector: banks, insurance companies and other agencies. Indeed, there is hardly any public sector where women’s presence is not felt.

5. Functionings (being and doing)simply denotes those capabilities that have been achieved whether voluntarily or by chance. For example, someone might have the real freedom to vote but chooses not to do so and thus does not have the functioning of voting.
The various things a person may value and have reason to value doing or being
intuitive
intrinsically valuable to the person
intrinsic value (have reason to value)
so avoids adaptive preferences
’doings and beings’ is our focal space

Functionings allow for different interpersonal conversion factors
Resources – Capability – Functionings Utility

Bike. -Able to ide around -rode around

Food. – Able to be nourished. -nourished

6. Sustenance, i.e., Ability to Meet Basic Needs:
It is also known as “the ability to meet basic needs”. All the persons have certain basic needs which are necessary for the survival. They consist of food, shelter, health and protection. If any one of them is missing or in short supply in any economy it would represent the state of under-development. Therefore, the purpose of economic development and economic activity is to make the possible efforts whereby the helplessness and misery of the people which arises due to lack of food, shelter, health and protection could be removed. Therefore, if due to economic development the quality of life is improved, it would really represent economic development. Therefore, if per capita income increases, absolute poverty is eliminated, greater employment opportunities are created and income inequalities are lessened, such all would constitute the, necessary though not the sufficient condition of economic development. The life-sustaining basic human needs include food, shelter, health and protection. When any one of these is absent or in critically short supply, a condition of absolute “underdevelopment” exists.

Self-Esteem, i.e., to be a Person:
A second universal component of the good life is a self-esteem, a sense of worth and self-respect. It means that the other people could not use him for their own ends. It also means that each person should be given his due respect and due right. Each person is desirous of his prestige, identity and recognition, though all f such values differ from country to country and from society to society. It is being observed now a days that when the process of economic development starts in a country the inequalities in the distribution of income increase. Because of such inequality the rich class considers itself superior to the poor. In this way, the poor segment of the society suffers from inferiority complex which leads to affect their efficiency.
Therefore, economic development should aim at removing such like unhealthy social and economic situation. When the man will be considered man and he is given due place he will be able to contribute well to economic development. Moreover, in addition to such domestic situation, such an atmosphere should be created at international level that both rich and the poor countries could stand side by side. If despite remarkable growth attained by UDCs they are looked down upon by the DCs, it will not represent economic growth.
A second universal component of good life is self- esteem- a sense of worth and self-respect- of not being used as a tool by others for their own ends. Due to the significance attached to material values in developed nations, worthiness and esteem are now-a-days increasingly conferred only on countries that possess economic wealth and technological power- those that have developed.

Freedom from Servitude: i.e., to be Able to Choose:
Arthur Lewis stressed the relationship between economic growth and freedom from servitude when he concluded that “the advantage of economic growth is not that wealth increases happiness, but that it increases the range of human choice.” Wealth can enable a person to gain greater control over nature and his physical environment than they would have if they remained poor.
It also gives them the freedom to choose greater leisure. The concept of human freedom should encompass various components of political freedom, freedom of expression, political participation and equality of opportunity.

7. Mechanisms by which income affects happiness
There are two major mechanisms which explains the impact of income to our happiness – adaptation and social comparison.

Adaptation mechanism says that if you’re given a one-off increase in your income, your happiness temporarily increases – until you get used to it then you begin to aspire for more. At first, when you’re earning a meager income, your focus is on buying yourself your daily needs. As your income increases, so does your standard of living. You purchase goods of higher quality. You begin to want better products and services – a better car, a bigger house, etc. Very rarely are we satisfied with what we have, if we see that there are better things available.
In the social comparison mechanism, people evaluate their income by comparing it to other people. This is where the keeping up with the joneses mentality comes from. Here, we evaluate our happiness by how much more we have as compared to other people. Although you already have a nice house, a good car, or the latest gadgets, if your neighbor has better stuff, you will cease to be contented with what you have. And you will blame the disparity and your discontent on your income. You say to yourself, I must earn more.

Facts on How Income Affects Happiness
Here are what studies say about the link between our income and our happiness:
The happiness of people living in poverty increases when they’re given a higher income. It eases their burdens and helps them escape from poverty. But once they experience freedom from the deprivation, the link between their increased income and happiness starts to dissipate.
Richer nations tend to be happier than poorer nations. In our society, the richer people are generally happier than the poor.
In the Easterlin paradox study of 1995, despite the growth in the income in the past decades, people’s self-reported level of happiness and satisfaction didn’t improve.
In the USA, the average income increased by 300% from 1970 to 1990 but the Americans’ sense of well-being didn’t improve with the increase in their pay checks.
Amidst the significant increase in income, people have been focused on strengthening their purchasing powers rather than on personal improvement. For example, a janitor at present can be considered richer than a doctor three decades ago, but he is still a janitor.
According to Sonja Lyubomirsky, the author of The How of Happiness, the set point of your happiness level is determined by several factors, which include genetics, your individual circumstances – such as your looks, income and marital status – and by the things or activities you choose to do to make yourself happy.

8. Economic growth is the increase in goods & services produced by an economy or nation, considered for a specific period of time. The rise in the country’s output of goods and services is steady and constant and may be caused by an improvement in the quality of education, improvements in technology, or in any way if there is value addition in goods and services which is produced by every sector of the economy.
It can be measured as a percentage increase in real gross domestic product. Where a gross domestic product (GDP) is adjusted by inflation. GDP is the market value of final goods & services which is produced in an economy or nation.

Economic Development is the process focusing on both qualitative and quantitative growth of the economy. It measures all the aspects which include people in a country become wealthier, healthier, better educated, and have greater access to good quality housing. Economic Development can create more opportunities in the sectors of education, healthcare, employment, and the conservation of the environment. It indicates an increase in the per capita income of every citizen. The standard of living includes various things like safe drinking water, improve sanitation systems, medical facilities, the spread of primary education to improve literacy rate, eradication of poverty, balanced transport networks, increase in employment opportunities, etc. Quality of living standard is the major indicator of economic development. Therefore, an increase in economic development is more necessary for an economy to achieve the status of a Developed Nation.
It can be measured by the Human Development Index, which considers the literacy rates & life expectancy which affect productivity and could lead to Economic Growth.

Nigeria is a developing country.
Statistics
GDP rank -26th (nominal, 2021) 24th (PPP, 2021)
GDP growth -2.2% (2019) -3.0% (2020 est.) 1.5% (2021 est.)
GDP per capita -$2,432 (nominal, 2021 est.) $5,280 (PPP, 2021 est.)
GDP per capita rank 162nd (nominal, 2021) 172nd (PPP, 2021)

NAME:- UZOCHUKWU CHIDINMA VIVIAN.
REG NO:- 2017/250786 -(TRANSFER STUDENT).
COURSE:- ECO 361.
LECTURER:- DR TONY ORJI.

ANSWERS.

1) There is a great contrast between living standards of people inhabiting in developing countries and developed countries. People in developing countries have low income, live in poor conditions and lack access to reliable and good health and education facilities. Many people in these countries are even deprived of basic amenities of life such as food, good shelter and safe drinking water. Whereas, in the developed countries,most of them take basic amenities of life such as food, shelter, access to education and health services for granted.
a) Raising people’s living levels i.e incomes and consumption, levels of food, medical services, education through relevant growth processes.
b) Creating conditions conducive to the growth of peoples self-esteem through the establishment of social, political and economic systems and institutions which promote human dignity and respect.
c) Increasing peoples freedom to choose by enlarging the range of their choice variables e.g: varieties of goods and services.
Some economists emphasize on these factors as a means to measure development. As such that,Development thrives to make progress when these factors listed out by Michael Todaro are put in place adequately and sufficiently for the betterment of the general public/citizenry.

2) The set of indices developed by the UN Development Programme in 1990, the first human development report outlined a new approach to development, focused on people and their opportunities rather than economic growth rate. These are:-
a) The Human Development Index is statistically formulated and collaborated to compute numerous countries social and economic development levels in the United Nations. The HDI was established to focus and emphasize that individuals and their potential ought to be the final criteria for measuring the development of a country not economic growth alone.
The HDI by the UN provides a better picture of a nation’s development because it incorporates primary, social and economic factors. Also it emphasizes the importance of individuals and their ability to unleash their maximum potential. It provides a richer picture of progress than GDP, which relates to a country’s wealth or even GDP per capita which tells us something about an individual’s means but nothing about their life outcomes. Nevertheless, the HDI has its limitations which is that it omitts several factors that can have a significant influence on quality of life such as environmental degradation, industrial pollution and deforestation. But all indices have limitations. Overall, the HDI has the potential to provide a simple impression of development that can be unpacked to indicate progress with respect to the SDG’s. It can be used to complement alternative measures of development. These factors are relatively simple forms of data are very important indicators of social welfare and freedom.

b) The UN’s Human Poverty Index(HPI):- This is a composite index of poverty that focuses on deprivations in human lives aimed at measuring poverty as a failure in capabilities in multiple dimensions, in contrast to the conventional headcount measure focused on low incomes. It is developed by United Nations Development program which also publishes indices like HDI. It was considered to better reflect the extent of deprivation in deprived countries compared to the HDI. The HPI concentrates on the deprivation in the three essential elements of human life already reflected in the HDI which are:- longevity, knowledge and a decent standard of living.

3) Development Economics is a branch of economics which deals with economic aspects of the development process in low and middle income countries. Its focus is not only on methods of promoting economic development, economic growth and structural change but also on improving the potential for the mass of the population,for example, through health, education and workplace conditions whether through public or private channels.
Development economics encourages the economic and social growth of low income countries and attempts to improve the conditions and wellbeing of the poorest economies by developing standards, structures and policies that help low income countries develop into modern and developed countries. Therefore, this field of economics focuses on transforming the poorest economies into the most prosperous nations of the world.

4) By studying development economics, you will have the opportunity to apply the tools of economic analysis to the problems and challenges facing less-developed countries and to begin to understand why some countries have been able to go though a process of economic and human development whilst others have languished.
Development economics attempts to explore some of the challenges peculiar to some of the poorest countries in the world. It tends to investigate and answer such questions as:-
a) To what extent does rapid population growth help or hinder development?
b) Is it necessary for economies to go through a process of structural transformation and how does this take place?
c) What is the role of education and health care provision in contributing to the process of development?
d) How important is it for countries to engage in international trade in the context of a globalising economy?
e) How can less-developed countries achieve sustainable development?
f) What effects has the HIV/AIDS epidemic have on economic and human development?

5) Alfred Sauvy referred to the “third world” as the height of the Cold War and applied it to the developing countries that remained outside the two power blocs but belonged to the non-communist world.
The term therefore implies that the third world is exploited, much as the third estate was exploited and that, like the third estate its destiny is a revolutionary one. It conveys as well as a second idea, also discussed by Sauvy, that of non-alignment, for the third world belongs neither to the industrialized capitalist world nor to the industrialized communist bloc.

REFERENCES.
Hayley Lashmar, Administrative Assistant, United Nations association – UK, 19th March, 2018. SDG ACTION.

UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME : Human Development Reports.

University of Bristol, Royal Economic Society, Scottish Economic society, Dr Peter Smith, University of Southampton.

NAME:OZONWU CHUKWUEBUKA SILAS
REG NO:2019/244686
EMAIL: ozonwuchukwuebuke@gmail.com
1.
Dudley Seers suggests that development is when a country experiences a reduction or elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment.The study analyses the Dudley Seer’s theory of development on the Nigeria economy. Before the emergence of Seer’s theory, there was a general believe amongst economists that development occurred when a country has a sustained economic growth in terms of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Many less developed countries including Nigeria experienced continues economic growth over the years but the such growth does not have a positive reflection in the lives of the people in terms of quality of life. Seer shifted away from such believes and propounded his theory of development with emphasis on poverty, inequality and unemployment. Thus, he used three indicators which are poverty, inequality and unemployment to cement his argument. That if these indicators are falling then that country is experiencing development but if not, they are not experiencing development.
2.A change process characterized by increasing productivity equalization in the distribution of the social product and the emergency of an indigenous institution whose relation without file world and particularly with developed centers of international economics are characterized by equality rather than dependence and submission. Reducing unemployment is one of the main causes of eliminating poverty and inequality. Moreover, a reduction in inequality will correspondingly reduce poverty. The classical argued that inequality is essential to generate
savings and investment and thus to promote economic growth, which savings are, of course, also affected by thevabsolute level of income, but the explanation must also lie in the high consumption levels of the rich designed to maintain standard so important in an unequal society. Similarly, the rich in most countries tend to have extremely high propensities, not merely to spend, but to spend on goods and services with high foreign exchange content, and countries suffering from an acute foreign exchange bottle neck; this is a major obstacle to development.
3.Sen does acknowledge that increases in poor people’s incomes do contribute to the expansion of their freedoms. However, he recognises that increase of income alone “has at best uneven and at worst has detrimental impacts on the majority of a country’s population, and radical redistributive measures are necessary for the poor to benefit from growth” (Selwyn 2011:69). Sen alerts the reader that poverty, unfulfilled elementary needs, the occurrence of famines, the violation of political freedoms and neglect of the agency of women remain today despite ‘unpredented opulence’ (1999). He makes it clear that previous strategies to reduce these catastrophes are erroneous. His approach focuses on human flourishing as the entry point to the problem of poverty and global inequality rather than economic growth (Reid-Henry 2012). Sen (1999) contends that all human beings are equally entitled to enjoy a life that they value. If pursuing freedom-for-all is about expanding citizens’ capabilities, the focus should not be exclusively on making up for what people lack.
Sen defines the major factors that limit freedom as ‘poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systematic social deprivation, neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or over activity of repressive states” (Sen 1999:1). He argues for the removal of these major factors. Sen focuses on crucial instrumental freedoms: economic opportunities, political freedoms, social facilities, transparency guarantees and protective security. These, he argues, need to be interconnected. Social facilities involve institutions such as the state and the market. Sen asserts societal arrangements should be investigated “in terms of their contribution to enhancing and guaranteeing the substantive freedoms of individuals, seen as active agents of change rather than as passive recipients of dispensed benefits” (Sen 1999:xii). Social facilities should aim to provide opportunities that increase the well-being of the population.
4. Women are the set of human beings that belongs to the female gender. They play the role of mothers, caretakers in family affairs, farmers, educators, entrepreneurs, teachers, e.t.c. It is historic that women play significant roles in societal development and ensure the stability, progress, and long-term development of nations. Women also play the role of decision-makers in homes. Globally, women contribute immensely to agricultural development, comprising about 43% of the world’s agricultural labor force. In some countries, the number of women involved in the agricultural labor force increases to over 70%. Available records indicate that in Africa alone, 80% of agricultural production comes from small farmers, most of whom are rural women. It is noteworthy that agriculture is the bedrock of national development as the best approach to food security, poverty reduction, job creation, and economic stability. At home, women, notably mothers, play the role in decision-making about family meal planning and diet. Women also initiate and preserve the nutritional and healthcare programs of children at home. In addition, women are not only caring for their children at home but are also the primary caretakers of both children and elders in every country of the world. International studies indicate that women lead in finding solutions to the problems occasioned by a change of political and economic organizations in countries, thereby helping the family adjust to new realities and challenges. Indeed, women are the initiators who play important role in facilitating changes in family life. The UN Women Watch organization asserts that ” rural women play a key role in supporting their households and communities in achieving food and nutritional security, generating income, and improving rural livelihoods and overall wellbeing. As educators, the role or contribution of women to society’s transition from pre- literate to the literate period is highly significant. Basic education is key to a nation’s ability to develop and achieve sustainable policies and programs. It is evident that education helps to improve agricultural productivity, enhances the status of girls and women, stabilizes population growth rates, enhances environmental protection and, increases the standard of living. It is the mother at home who most often urges children of both genders to attend and stay in school. The role of women is at the front end of the chain of improvement, leading to the family and the community’s long term capacity.
5. This aforementioned approach straightly stresses the quality of life that people are actually ABLE TO ACHIEVE. The quality of life we’re referring is analyzed in terms of the core concepts of “FUNCTIONINGS” and “CAPABILITY”. “Capability to function” is what really matters for status as a poor or non-poor person. It stated that it is not only the potential to gain something (consumable or non-consumable) through money but rather the ability to do, make, or create something. And the concept enlightens us that money is not the most essential into development goals and achievements yet it gives emphasis to the being of people. It focuses more on people, its function, on what it can do with its characteristics rather than the wealth it possesses. Functioning is simply the state of doing, being or working. Take note that there is a significant distinction between commodities employed and functioning, to further elaborate this, examples are provided. Driving a car is distinguishable from having a car. Bicycling is distinguishable from having a bike. Capability refers to the set of VALUABLE functioning that a person has EFFECTIVE ACCESS TO. Therefore, a person’s capability symbolizes the right to exercise “EFFECTIVE FREEDOM” of people to choose between different functioning combinations- been different kinds of life, that THEY HAVE REASONS TO VALUE. This allows analysis to focus on sets of functioning related to particular aspects of life. capabilities approach offers a comprehensive perspective of development where everything revolves around enhancing people’s well-being. The concept of “capabilities to function” tells us that money is not enough because resources and goods alone do not ensure that people are able to convert them into actual doings and beings.
Through this concept, people who are liberally capable of what people are, or can be- does, or can do will vitally plays a major role into development goals and achievement. Since CAPABILITY is tied with DEVELOPMENT and ACHIEVEMENT. Let now move on to the follow up question which is “is money enough to help us gain insight into development goals and achievement? Why or why not?” Sen asks us to consider two persons with the same set of resources. Yet, one person suffers from a disability. This disability makes her unequal to the able-bodied person in two regards, which cannot be captured by a sole focus on resources. First of all, the disabled person is unequal in terms of what she can do or be with her resources compared with the physically able person. She may, for example, be confined to a wheelchair and thus restricted to places that are wheelchair-accessible. Secondly, the disabled person may even be doubly worse off because she only gets the same number of resources even though she has more expenses in order to correct for her disability. That is, because the disabled person needs to spend a considerable amount of her resources on a wheelchair merely to move around, she has fewer resources available to pursue other goals than the able- bodied person who can spend all her resources on pursuing her valued ends. Thus, in order to evaluate people’s well- being, we need to not only consider the number of resources they have, but also what they are able to do and be with those resources.
6. The three core values of development are:
1. sustenance
2.self esteem
3. Freedom
1.Sustenance this means the ability to meet the basic necessities of life which is necessary to sustain an average human being. Such basic necessities are food, shelter, good health, protection, etc. Without these basic needs, living will be impossible. When any of these is absent or in short supply, absolute underdevelopment exists. Therefore, the basic function of any society is to provide a means of overcoming the helplessness and misery arising from lack of these basic needs. To this extent, we may say that economic development is a necessary condition for the improvement in the quality of life of the people.Without sustained and continuous economic progress, the realization of the human potential would not be possible because one has to have enough in order to have more. Rising per capita income and elimination of absolute poverty, greater employment opportunities, lessening income inequalities therefore constitutes the necessary but not the sufficient condition for measuring/ determining economic growth.
2. Self-esteem this means the sense of worth and self-respect of not being used as a tool by others for their own ends. All societies seek some basic form of self-esteem which may be called identity, dignity, respect, recognition, etc. It should be noted that the level of self-esteem varies from societies to societies and from cultures to cultures. However, with proliferation of the modernizing values of developed nations, many developing countries suffer from serious cultural confusion when they come in contact with economically and technologically advanced societies.
3. Freedom from Servitude this means the ability to choose. Freedom here has to do with the sense of emancipation from undesirable conditions of life such as oppressive institutions, misery, dogmatic beliefs, etc.
7. However, there is another measure of happiness: do people evaluate their lives as satisfactory? By this definition, Deaton and Kahneman found no limit to the uses of money: extra income, at any level, was correlated with higher levels of life satisfaction. More recently, psychologists Paul Bain and Renata Bongiorno changed the focus: instead of asking how much money was enough, they invited survey participants to envisage their absolutely ideal life. Then they asked how much money would be required to achieve that life, if it came in the form of a lottery win. Those lottery prizes ranged from $10,000 (for those whose absolutely ideal life involves replacing the curtains and upholstery) to $100bn (for those whose absolutely ideal life involves a great deal of drama about buying Twitter). Most people, however, did not favour the top prize. A $10mn lottery prize was a popular choice. Why? One possibility is that nobody really has a clue how to answer the survey question, and $10mn was the central answer, a thousand times more than the minimum and a thousand times less than the maximum.
8.Economic growth means an increase in real national income / national output.
Economic development means an improvement in the quality of life and living standards, e.g. measures of literacy, life- expectancy and health care.
In terms of growth and development Nigeria has been stagnant.

No. 1
Professor Dudley Seers argues that development is about outcomes, that is development occurs with the reduction of poverty, unemployment and inequality with in a growing economy. It is true of course that both poverty and unemployment are associated in various ways with per capita income. If per capita incomes are falling, in absolute poverty can hardly be reduced much, not can unemployment. But certainly increases in per capita income are far from enough, as the experiences of petroleum economies shown, to achieve either of these objectives. The questions to ask about a coutry’s development are therefore: What has been happening to poverty? What has been happening to unemployment? What has been happening to inequality? If all these have declined from high levels then beyond doubt this has been a period of development for the country concerned.
No. 2
Inequality and poverty might interrelate, having a negative impact on economic growth. As Bui and Nguyen (2017) concluded, an inequality can destabilize institutional efficiency that spreads economic security. Economic growth estimation, including control for inequality and incomes but not poverty, might not successfully capture drawback that reduces the growth. The impact of poverty can be distinct along with the effects of inequality. Furthermore, Ravallion (2002) argued that poverty negatively impacted consumption growth, and consequently, less poverty decreases with economic growth.

No. 3
Development is the process of expanding human freedom. It is “the enhancement of freedoms that allow people to lead lives that they have reason to live”. Hence “development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom: poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systemic social deprivation, neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or overactivity of repressive states”.

Sen argues that there are five types of interrelated freedoms, namely, political freedom, economic facilities, social opportunities, transparency and security. The state has a role in supporting freedoms by providing public education, health care, social safety nets, good macroeconomic policies, productivity and protecting the environment.
Freedom implies not just to do something, but the capabilities to make it happen. What people can achieve (their capabilities) is influenced by “economic opportunities, political liberties, social powers, and the enabling condition of good health, basic education, and the encouragement and cultivation of initiatives”.
Moreover, freedom deficits still exist in so-called developed countries, and the situation may be moving backwards. Political freedoms are compromised by vested interest politics in the US, and oligarchic powers in Japan and much of Europe. Protectionism of large enterprises, especially in Europe and Japan, limit the economic freedom of small and medium size enterprises. Social opportunities are constrained in most countries as the rich have much better access than the poor to health and education services. Sen does us all a good service in raising the issue of cultural freedoms. The more these issues are discussed the better. But progress will require massive changes in attitudes.
More fundamentally, Sen does not address the issue of how individual freedoms should be nested into society, where we all have to forego some freedom in order to live together peace.

No. 4
Globally, women contribute immensely to agricultural development, comprising about 43% of the world’s agricultural labor force. In some countries, the number of women involved in the agricultural labor force increases to over 70%. Available records indicate that in Africa alone, 80% of agricultural production comes from small farmers, most of whom are rural women. It is noteworthy that agriculture is the bedrock of national development as the best approach to food security, poverty reduction, job creation, and economic stability.

At home, women, notably mothers, play the role in decision-making about family meal planning and diet. Women also initiate and preserve the nutritional and healthcare programs of children at home. In addition, women are not only caring for their children at home but are also the primary caretakers of both children and elders in every country of the world. International studies indicate that women lead in finding solutions to the problems occasioned by a change of political and economic organizations in countries, thereby helping the family adjust to new realities and challenges. Indeed, women are the initiators who play important role in facilitating changes in family life. The UN Women Watch organization asserts that ” rural women play a key role in supporting their households and communities in achieving food and nutritional security, generating income, and improving rural livelihoods and overall wellbeing.
As educators, the role or contribution of women to society’s transition from pre-literate to the literate period is highly significant. Basic education is key to a nation’s ability to develop and achieve sustainable policies and programs. It is evident that education helps to improve agricultural productivity, enhances the status of girls and women, stabilizes population growth rates, enhances environmental protection and, increases the standard of living. It is the mother at home who most often urges children of both genders to attend and stay in school. The role of women is at the front end of the chain of improvement, leading to the family and the community’s long term capacity.
Although women are still lagging behind men worldwide, the historic and current role of women is indisputable. Michelle Bachelet, the Under-Secretary-General and Executive Director of UN Women notes that “when women are empowered and can claim their rights and have access to land, leadership, opportunities and choices, economic growth, food security are enhanced and developmental prospects are improved for current and future generations.
The role of women as volunteers in local and international organizations for development has global collective recognition. The global Volunteers Community Development work in host countries worldwide strengthens women’s and children’s capacity and supports their sustained health and development. Under the development and direction of local leaders, women volunteers help ensure academic accessibility, foster parental involvement, offer psycho-social support, provide nutrition and health education, fund girls’ scholarships, construct schools and educate children and women through programmed extension works.

No. 5
i Being healthy
Health capability is the ability to be healthy; it integrates health functioning and health agency. Health capability helps us understand the conditions that facilitate and barriers that impede health and the ability to make healthy choices. Health capability has the effect of creating a virtuous circle; developing people’s health capability enables them to create and support the conditions for their own and other’s.

ii.Being literate
Wellbeing literacy is defined as a capability to comprehend and compose wellbeing language, across contexts, with the intention of using such language to maintain or improve the wellbeing of oneself, others or the world. Wellbeing literacy is underpinned by a capability model (i.e., what someone is able to be and do), and is based on constructivist (i.e., language shapes reality) and contextualist (i.e., words have different meanings in different contexts) epistemologies.

No. 6
Sustenance:
The life-sustaining basic human needs include food, shelter, health and protection. When any one of these is absent or in critically short supply, a condition of absolute “underdevelopment” exists.
Self-esteem:
A second universal component of good life is self- esteem- a sense of worth and self-respect- of not being used as a tool by others for their own ends. Due to the significance attached to material values in developed nations, worthiness and esteem are now-a-days increasingly conferred only on countries that possess economic wealth and technological power- those that have developed.
Now-a-days the Third World seeks development in order to gain the esteem which is denied to societies living in a state of disgraceful “underdevelopment.” … Development is legitimized as a goal because it is an important, perhaps even an indispensable, way of gaining esteem.

Freedom from Servitude:
Arthur Lewis stressed the relationship between economic growth and freedom from servitude when he concluded that “the advantage of economic growth is not that wealth increases happiness, but that it increases the range of human choice.” Wealth can enable a person to gain greater control over nature and his physical environment than they would have if they remained poor.
It also gives them the freedom to choose greater leisure. The concept of human freedom should encompass various components of political freedom, freedom of expression, political participation and equality of opportunity.
No. 7
Social scientists often recommend that measures of subjective well-being should augment the usual measures of economic prosperity, such as GDP per capita. But how can happiness be measured? Here is a preview of what the data reveals.
Surveys asking people about life satisfaction and happiness do measure subjective well-being with reasonable accuracy.
Life satisfaction and happiness vary widely both within and among countries. It only takes a glimpse at the data to see that people are distributed along a wide spectrum of happiness levels.
Richer people tend to say they are happier than poorer people; richer countries tend to have higher average happiness levels; and across time, most countries that have experienced sustained economic growth have seen increasing happiness levels. So the evidence suggests that income and life satisfaction tend to go together (which still doesn’t mean they are one and the same).
One of the earliest theories on the relationship between money and happiness was outlined by Richard Easterlin. He’s an economics professor at the University of Southern California (USA).
Professor Easterlin found that countries with higher median incomes are generally happier than countries with lower levels. In fact, he discovered that, as long as citizens have enough income to meet their basic needs, they tend to be happy.
Easterlin argued that life satisfaction rises with average income, but only up to a point. Beyond that, the marginal gain in happiness decreases. In a nutshell, the happiness-income paradox is as follows: At one point, both between and within nations, happiness varies directly with income but, over time, happiness doesn’t increase when a country’s income increases.Having more money buys satisfaction with life, but not happiness. However, low income is linked to both low emotional well-being and low evaluation of life.When people make a lot of money they feel more satisfied with the outcome of their life and less irritable, but that doesn’t mean they feel happy.
As a matter of fact, the peace of mind that comes with having one’s basic needs covered has more to do with human rights than with the scope of the feeling of happiness. Obviously, if you don’t have basic needs such as shelter or food, it’ll be extremely difficult to experience peace of mind and, thus a feeling of general happiness.
A study conducted by Elizabeth W. Dunn, Lara B. Aknin, and Michael I. Norton and published in 2008 in Science, concluded that money buys happiness, but only if it’s spent on someone else. In fact, the study discovered a direct correlation between the amount people spent on gifts for others and an increase in their feelings of accomplishment.
For a second study, the team surveyed employees at a company who’d just received profit-sharing bonuses. The amount of this bonus that workers spent on others predicted their happiness six to eight weeks later. On the other hand, the part of the bonus they spent on themselves had no effect on their happiness.
In a third study, the team gave research participants between five and 20 dollars and instructed them to spend the money on themselves or others. Then, their happiness was determined. The study found that those who spent their money on others were happier than those who didn’t.
It’s not how much you earn, but how you spend it
While researchers may have looked at this age-old question from various angles, they generally agree that happiness doesn’t depend so much on how much we earn, but on how we choose to spend it.
Therefore, can it be said that money buys happiness? Maybe, depending on how we spend it.
For instance, in your own life, you may have noticed that getting a raise or bonus didn’t make you happier in the long run. The initial euphoria quickly dissipated as you got used to the new pay.
Or, perhaps you found that buying the new smartphone or the latest gadget didn’t do much for your happiness. That doesn’t mean that it didn’t give you enjoyment, but that has nothing to do with your happiness in the medium-long term.
Keys to spending money as an investment in our well-being
Science claims that there are a few ways money can be spent that are guaranteed to give longer-lasting pleasure:
Buying more time
A UCLA study of 4,400 Americans showed that people who value time more than money are generally happier than those who don’t believe that having more time is better than having more money.
People mistakenly believe that buying things that last longer and even appreciate in value will keep them happy much longer than experiences. Nevertheless, in reality, you quickly get used to the new designer winter boots you once obsessed over. Although you might still enjoy wearing them, that initial rush of happiness you experienced in the first few weeks quickly fades.
However, a great experience like a vacation on an exotic island will remain in your memory for life. You’ll always remember those moments as a wave of pleasure. Indeed, experiences may be fleeting, but the joy they bring will last a long time. They’re the kinds of sensations and memories that can cheer you up when you’re feeling down and encourage you to organize similar experiences.
Spending on friends and family
You’ll feel greater satisfaction when you spend time and money on the people who really matter to you. After all, we’re all social animals and having healthy relationships with others is essential for our physical and mental health.
Spending money on experiences is more rewarding because you often share those good times with a spouse, friend, or family. Even going shopping together is more fun than doing it alone.
Why does it make us happy to spend money on others? Psychologists say it’s because it makes us feel good about ourselves. Giving to others enhances a loving and generous image of ourselves that makes us happy. It helps us connect more with them, and people with strong social ties are generally happier than people without.
To a certain extent, money contributes considerably to feelings of well-being. However, beyond that point, more money doesn’t necessarily translate into a happier person. Nonetheless, with conscious and correct spending, money can, indeed, buy a certain amount of happiness.
Money And Happiness Don’t Always Go Together
No. 8
Economic Development refers to an overall development of the quality of life in a nation, which includes economic growth. Increase in the volume of goods and services produced and consumed along with improved living circumstances, with equitable distribution, improved healthcare service outcomes, by making education accessible to all, by enhancing the overall quality of personal, social and professional conditions and most importantly without environmental degradation.. Economic Development refers also to a process of gradual transformation and improvement in the level of functioning of an economy.

Economic Growth refers to an increase in the monetary (income) or output growth of a nation. It is an increase in size evident through physical change.
However, since the country has failed to manage its resources properly, there has been a slow rate of growth and development for over 60 years of independence.
Following the pandemic induced recession in 2020, Nigeria’s economic growth recovered but macroeconomic stability weakened. Amidst global commodity shocks, a depreciating currency, trade restrictions, and monetization of the deficit, inflation is surging and pushing millions of Nigerians into poverty. Since 2021, Nigeria is also unable to benefit from the surging global oil prices, as oil production has fallen to historic lows and petrol subsidy continues to consume a larger share of the gross oil revenues.
In 2018, 40% of Nigerians (83 million people) lived below the poverty line, while another 25% (53 million) were vulnerable. With Nigeria’s population growth continuing to outpace poverty reduction, the number of Nigerians living in extreme poverty is set to rise by 7.7 million between 2019 and 2024.
While the economy is projected to grow at an average of 3.2% in 2022-2024, the growth outlook is subject to downside risks including further declines in oil production and heightened insecurity. Meanwhile, continued scarcity of foreign exchange and tighter liquidity could affect the economic activity in the non-oil sector and undermine the overall macroeconomic stability. The uncertainty is also expected to be accompanied by high inflation and continued fiscal and debt pressures.
While Nigeria has made some progress in socio-economic terms in recent years, its human capital development ranked 150 of 157 countries in the World Bank’s 2020 Human Capital Index. The country continues to face massive developmental challenges, including the need to reduce the dependency on oil and diversify the economy, address insufficient infrastructure, build strong and effective institutions, as well as address governance issues and public financial management systems.
Inequality, in terms of income and opportunities, remains high and has adversely affected poverty reduction. The lack of job opportunities is at the core of the high poverty levels, regional inequality, and social and political unrest. High inflation has also taken a toll on household’s welfare and high prices in 2020-2022 are likely to have pushed an additional 8 million Nigerians into poverty.

Answers:
1.Before the emergence of Seer’s theory, there was a general believe amongst economists that development occurred when a country has a sustained economic growth in terms of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Many less developed propounded his theory of development with emphasis on poverty, inequality and unemployment. Thus, he used three indicators which are poverty, inequality and unemployment to cement his argument. That if these indicators are falling then that country is experiencing development but if not, they are not experiencing development. This propounded his theory of development with emphasis on poverty, inequality and unemployment. Thus, he used three indicators which are poverty, inequality and unemployment to cement his argument. That if these indicators are falling then that country is experiencing development but if not, they are not experiencing development.To him, if these three variables have declined over a period of time, then development has occurred for the nation concerned. But if one or two of these variables have been growing worse, especially if all three have, it would be strange to call the result “development,” even if per capita income has soared.

2. Economic development describes all involvement that makes an economy to develop as well as when output increase in terms of poverty reduction (that is all the citizens of an economy/country are living above a dollar daily)
when these happen in relation to its sustainability, we say that the poverty level will tend to reduce and if output is equally distributed or there is elimination of inequality in terms of output, the economy will tend towards development.

3. Freedom is the ultimate goal of economic development as well as most efficient means of realizing welfare, overcoming deprivation is central to development. Unfreedom includes hunger, famine, ignorance, an unsustainable economic life, unemployment, barriers to fulfilment by women by minority communities, premature death.

4.Women are known for keeping the home first, Women also play the role of decision-makers in homes women are not only caring for their children at home but are also the primary caretakers of both children and elders in every country of the world. It is very important for the nations development and ensure the stability, progress, and long-term development of nations.

5. Being able to live long: if citizens of an economy tend to live longer, it will directly boast the productivity of the economy as there will be enough manpower needed for productive activities
Being well nourished: good nourishment (not food) is very vital for the development of an economy, if citizens has the right type of nourishment it will show in their economic development
Being well clothed: the productivity of citizens of an economy can also be affected by the clothing they have on at seasons of production. i.e. wearing of light and well covered cloth in summer than wearing of thick clothing can boast productivity
Being able to take part in the life of the community.

6. Sustenance: when one has the ability to afford basic necessities. i.e. an employed salary earner who can afford his need with his income without borrowing aver a long period of time can directly affect how the economy develops.
Self-esteem: having trust in oneself can go a long way on how productivity will be attained. i.e. when one take risks and boast investment in businesses
Economic development can be reached easily.
Freedom from servitude: To be able to choose how you live in your productivity can go a long way in determining economic development
i.e. citizens that have freedom to work where their productivity is higher.

7. Income generates happiness if it is steady enough to purchase necessities. If the income earned from output is good enough for purchase and good livelihood, it will bring happiness

8.
Economic growth
This refers to increase in the monetary(income) growth of a nation in a particular period. It takes place when there is a sustained (ongoing for at least 1-2 years) increase in a country output of goods and services.
Economic development
It refers to the overall development of the quality of life in a nation which includes economic growth. It occurs when the standard of living of a large majority of the population rises, including both income and other dimensions like health and illiteracy.

Ogbonna Mmesoma Rita
Social science education/Economics
2019/243578

Answer
1: Thus, he used three indicators which are poverty, inequality and unemployment to cement his argument. That if these indicators are falling then that country is experiencing development.

4: Women are the set of human beings that belongs to the female gender. They play the role of mothers, caretakers in family affairs, farmers, educators, entrepreneurs, teachers, e.t.c. It is historic that women play significant roles in societal development and ensure the stability, progress, and long-term development of nations. Women also play the role of decision-makers in homes. Globally, women contribute immensely to agricultural development, comprising about 43% of the world’s agricultural labor force. In some countries, the number of women involved in the agricultural labor force increases to over 70%. Available records indicate that in Africa alone, 80% of agricultural production comes from small farmers, most of whom are rural women. It is noteworthy that agriculture is the bedrock of national development as the best approach to food security, poverty reduction, job creation, and economic stability.
The role of women as volunteers in local and international organizations for development has global collective recognition. The global Volunteers Community Development work in host countries worldwide strengthens women’s and children’s capacity and supports their sustained health and development. Under the development and direction of local leaders, women volunteers help ensure academic accessibility, foster parental involvement, offer psycho-social support, provide nutrition and health education, fund girls’ scholarships, construct schools and educate children and women through programmed extension works.

5: Being literate is a vital human capability that enables people to make choices in area that matter.
# Being healthy is being in good health or having or living in relationships with others to which they have real access.
# Being nourished is having been provided with or sustain with food or nutrient; supply with that is necessary for life,health and growth.
# Being mobile is if you are mobile,you can move or travel easily from place to place.

6: Sustenance(ability to meet basic needs): according to Goulet it is the ability of people to meet the basic needs without which life will be impossible. These needs includes food,shelter,health and protection without livelihood and continuous Economic progress,the realization of human potential will be much more difficult.
• Self esteem: This value talked about a sense of worth and self respect, a sense of not being used as a tool by others for their own selfish ends.self esteem is nowadays increasingly conferred only on countries and individual that posses economic wealth.especially Nigeria.
• Freedom of servitude(ability to choose): Freedom here’s should be in form of being free from alienating material condition of life and from servitude to nature, ignorance misery and logmatic beliefs, especially that poverty is predestination. To be able to make political and economic choice that does not infringe on someone’s right. Unfortunately,this does not happen in Nigeria,the citizen don’t have the ability to choose, especially their leaders during elections because of lots of anomalies such as rigging of election accompanied by such election.

7: Some scholars believes that all forms of well-being continued rising with income,your income can impact your happiness levels.they believes that financial stability helps people escape the every day hassles of life while others that disagree with the assertions believes that happiness comes from within,not from possession that can be bought. Beyond the ability to pay your bills, happiness is a state of mind that is short-lived when you base it on physical objects and members in an investment portfolio.

8: Economic growth refers to increase in monetary or output growth of a nation in a particular period,it takes place where there is sustained(ongoing for at least 1-2 years)increase in a country’s output,goods and services.
While Economic development refers to the overall development (increase)in the quality of life in a nation which includes economic growth.it occurs when the standard of living of a large majority of the population rises including both human and other dimensions like health and literacy .
# Economic growth it is a short term process while Economic development is a long term process which leads to progressive changes in a socio-Economic structure of a country.
# Economic growth is s necessary but insufficient condition for Economic development while Economic development is a necessary and sufficient condition for improvement of human welfare,raising of living standard and reduction of poverty.

In 2018, 40% of Nigerians (83 million people) lived below the poverty line, while another 25% (53 million) were vulnerable. With Nigeria’s population growth continuing to outpace poverty reduction, the number of Nigerians living in extreme poverty is set to rise by 7.7 million between 2019 and 2024.

While the economy is projected to grow at an average of 3.2% in 2022-2024, the growth outlook is subject to downside risks including further declines in oil production and heightened insecurity. Meanwhile, continued scarcity of foreign exchange and tighter liquidity could affect the economic activity in the non-oil sector and undermine the overall macroeconomic stability. The uncertainty is also expected to be accompanied by high inflation and continued fiscal and debt pressures.

Development Challenges

While Nigeria has made some progress in socio-economic terms in recent years, its human capital development ranked 150 of 157 countries in the World Bank’s 2020 Human Capital Index. The country continues to face massive developmental challenges, including the need to reduce the dependency on oil and diversify the economy, address insufficient infrastructure, build strong and effective institutions, as well as address governance issues and public financial management systems.

Inequality, in terms of income and opportunities, remains high and has adversely affected poverty reduction. The lack of job opportunities is at the core of the high poverty levels, regional inequality, and social and political unrest. High inflation has also taken a toll on household’s welfare and high prices in 2020-2022 are likely to have pushed an additional 8 million Nigerians into poverty.

1. Development is an event constituting a new stage in a changing situation. Inorder for this to take place, alot has to be put in place which wouy require time,mental energy, money and other necessities. Its evaluation must therefore take into account three linked economic criteria which are reduction in poverty, unemployment and inequality.

2. Economic development is the growth of the standard of living of a nation’s people from a low-income economy to a high-income economy, scarce resources are allocated to the unlimited want of the people, there is reduction of unemployment and equality in the allocation of scarce resource.
Economic development has to do with growth in a country’s production level etc.

3. poverty needs to be reduced for development to take place. There should be freedom from poverty, tyranny, inequality, poor economic opportunity etc. Nigeria is seen as an underdeveloped county today because of the rate at which it’s citizens are held captive by poverty and many other factors affecting economic development. Development consists of the removal of various types of unfreedoms that leave people with little choice and little opportunity of exercising their reasoned agency.

4. women play the role of mothers, affairs, farmers, educators, entrepreneurs, teachers, e.t.c. It is historic that women play significant roles in societal development and ensure the stability, progress, and long-term development of nations. Women also play the role of decision-makers in homes. Globally, women contribute immensely to agricultural development, comprising about 43% of the world’s agricultural labor force. In some countries, the number of women involved in the agricultural labor force increases to over 70%. Available records indicate that in Africa alone, 80% of agricultural production comes from small farmers, most of whom are rural women. It is noteworthy that agriculture is the bedrock of national development as the best approach to food security, poverty reduction, job creation, and economic stability.
At home, women, notably mothers, play the role in decision-making about family meal planning and diet. Women also initiate and preserve the nutritional and healthcare programs of children at home. In addition, women are not only caring for their children at home but are also the primary caretakers of both children and elders in every country of the world. International studies indicate that women lead in finding solutions to the problems occasioned by a change of political and economic organizations in countries.

5. The Capability Approach is defined by its choice of focus upon the moral significance of individuals’ capability of achieving the kind of lives they have reason to value. This distinguishes it from more established approaches to ethical evaluation, such as utilitarianism or resourcism, which focus exclusively on subjective well-being or the availability of means to the good life, respectively. A person’s capability to live a good life is defined in terms of the set of valuable ‘beings and doings’ like being in good health or having loving relationships with others to which they have real access.
The Capability Approach was first articulated by the Indian economist and philosopher Amartya Sen in the 1980s, and remains most closely associated with him. It has been employed extensively in the context of human development.

6.Sustenance. This refers to the capacity to meet basic necessities such as food, clothing, and shelter. Lack of even one of these means that a person’s life is not progressive. A country develops if its citizens have enough or more than enough for their basic necessities, there is growth of income, extreme poverty is addressed, and there is equality among members of society.

self-esteem The quality of life is good when there is respect, trust, and self-value. Each person has needs which can be achieved through the presence of respect, dignity, and a good reputation in society. A person’s worth as an individual cannot simply be measured by the ownership of material things which is often given emphasis by progressive capitalist countries such as the United States. In the Philippines, material wealth is not the only important thing but the love for one’s family, the family’s reputation, and a person’s dignity and self-esteem. A country is developed if this unique need of the people is addressed.

Freedom from Servitude. This freedom is drawn from liberation from oppressive systems in society, poverty and abuse, slavery, ignorance, and the absence of the freedom to choose one’s culture or religion. This freedom can be seen in the range of choices in a society. What is good about development is not only the joy of being free from poverty but also the availability of a wide range of choices. In general, freedom prevails if people live a comfortable life, if they have the freedom to choose their religion, to vote and to express their opinion about administration and governance, and if they enjoy equal opportunities for education and employment.

7. Money is a double edged sword,it is true that happiness has a direct core relation with higher income and it is also true that it doesn’t. Many people are living fine and happy because they have money to solve their problem but remember that the rich also cry, they also die. Despite the fact that the income of the people is increased which may make them happy, there are other factors affecting their happiness and they can be unsatisfied working condition, rich people are always insecure etc. Money doesn’t solve all issues but it’s essential.

8. Economic growth is an automatic action. It means that it happens on its own. It does not need the involvement of economic development to increase. But for economic development to increase according to quality, economic growth is compulsory to occur. This happens because economic growth is a small yet significant role that it plays in economic development. Economic growth is a uni-dimensional approach which deals with the increase in income or output of a nation while Economic development is a multi-dimensional approach that looks into the income and as well as the quality of life of the nation.
In Nigeria, While the economy is projected to grow at an average of 3.2% in 2022-2024, the growth outlook is subject to downside risks including further declines in oil production and heightened insecurity also Worldwide gross domestic product in 2021 was at about 12.259 USD per capita. GDP in Nigeria, on the other hand, reached USD 2.085 per capita, or 440.78 billion USD in the whole country. Nigeria is therefore currently ranked 30 of the major economies and last but not the least Nigeria can be classified as a Stage 3 in Rostow’s Modernization Model and Nigeria is an LDC. Nigeria can be classified as a Stage 3 because of its biggest industries, such as footwear, chemicals, cement and other construction materials, printing, ceramics, and textiles.

1. Professor Dudley Seers argues that development is about outcomes ie development occurs with the reduction and elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment within a growing economy. Discuss
Dudley Seers suggests that development is when a country experiences a reduction or elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment. For him it is important to look at the different diversities of individual if we seek to enhance their capabilities. To this Seers goes on to identify a number of objectives for development for developing countries:
a. That family incomes should be adequate to provide a subsistence package of food, shelter, clothing, and footwear.
b. That jobs should be available to all family heads, not only because this will ensure that distribution of income will generally achieve subsistence consumption levels, but also because a job is something without which personality cannot develop.
c. That access to education should be increased and literacy ratios raised.
d. That the populace should be given an opportunity to participate in government.
e. That national independence should be achieved in the sense that the views of other governments do not largely predetermine one’s own government’s decisions.
Seer explains that the above objectives are very crucial in determining the success of individual in actualizing the kind of life he or she may have reason to value.There is explicitly in Seers a sequent aspect to this. As progress is made towards the economic goals, that is ‘undernourishment, unemployment and inequality dwindle’.. ‘educational and political aims become increasingly important objectives of development’.
2. Apart from a rise in output, Economic Development involves changes in composition of output, shift in the allocation of productive resources, and elimination or reduction of poverty, inequalities and unemployment. Clearly discuss the above assertion.
Economic Development is programs, policies or activities that seek to improve the economic well-being and quality of life for a community. What “economic development” means to you will depend on the community you live in. Each community has its own opportunities, challenges, and priorities. Your economic development planning must include the people who live and work in the community.
Though economic development priorities vary, economic development strategies often aim for common, positive results, such as:
Creating more jobs and more job variety
Keeping businesses and getting new ones
A better quality of life
More people and businesses paying taxes
More productive use of property
Promoting your community’s assets
Making and selling more local products
Getting more skilled workers living in your community

3. In the words of Amartya Sen “Development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom, poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systematic social deprivation neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or over activity of repressive states. Do you agree? Explain in details
According to Send freedom is both the primary end and the principal means of development. Insofar as many of us have been critical of approaches to development that emphasize growth in Gross Domestic Product (GDP), rising personal incomes, industrialization, technological advance, or social modernization, freedom is also of important to development.
Sen gives two reasons why freedom should be the primary element of development: first, the only acceptable evaluation of human progress is primarily and ultimately enhancement of freedom; second, the achievement of development is dependent on the free agency of people. Many people will agree with the first assertion, as long as the definition of freedom is wide enough to include freedom from material or spiritual want, which it does for Sen. The second assertion is more controversial within mainstream economics and popular discourse: the reason usually given by economists to cut back on public expenditures, including education, housing, healthcare and social welfare, is that poor economies cannot afford such expenditures and that development (in terms of economic growth) must happen first and only then can societies afford to look after the social welfare of their people (for a classic version of this ‘stage’ thesis, see Rostow, 1960). Sen breaks with this orthodoxy, providing evidence that high incomes do not necessarily lead to wellbeing (for instance, in terms of life expectancy), and arguing that welfare expenditures can be a spur to rather than a drain on economic growth, especially since they are labor-intensive and since labor is so cheap in poor countries. Thus, he argues against the ‘Lee Thesis’, named for President Lee Kuan Yew of Singapore, which states that denying political and civil rights is acceptable if it promotes economic development and the general wealth of the population (Sen, 1999:15). He rightly insists that we should approach political freedoms and civil rights not through the means of eventually achieving them (GDP growth) but as a direct good in their own right. Freedom is also good because it creates growth.
4. Critically discuss the Central Role of Women in the National Development
Women play the role of mothers, caretakers in family affairs, farmers, educators, entrepreneurs, teachers, e.t.c. It is historic that women play significant roles in societal development and ensure the stability, progress, and long-term development of nations. Women also play the role of decision-makers in homes. Globally, women contribute immensely to agricultural development, comprising about 43% of the world’s agricultural labor force. In some countries, the number of women involved in the agricultural labor force increases to over 70%. Available records indicate that in Africa alone, 80% of agricultural production comes from small farmers, most of whom are rural women. It is noteworthy that agriculture is the bedrock of national development as the best approach to food security, poverty reduction, job creation, and economic stability.

At home, women, notably mothers, play the role in decision-making about family meal planning and diet. Women also initiate and preserve the nutritional and healthcare programs of children at home. In addition, women are not only caring for their children at home but are also the primary caretakers of both children and elders in every country of the world. International studies indicate that women lead in finding solutions to the problems occasioned by a change of political and economic organizations in countries, thereby helping the family adjust to new realities and challenges. Indeed, women are the initiators who play important role in facilitating changes in family life. The UN Women Watch organization asserts that ” rural women play a key role in supporting their households and communities in achieving food and nutritional security, generating income, and improving rural livelihoods and overall wellbeing.

As educators, the role or contribution of women to society’s transition from pre-literate to the literate period is highly significant. Basic education is key to a nation’s ability to develop and achieve sustainable policies and programs. It is evident that education helps to improve agricultural productivity, enhances the status of girls and women, stabilizes population growth rates, enhances environmental protection and, increases the standard of living. It is the mother at home who most often urges children of both genders to attend and stay in school. The role of women is at the front end of the chain of improvement, leading to the family and the community’s long term capacity.
The role of women in providing an improved and sustainable workforce is also significant and exciting. The women’s share of the global workforce is about 45.5%. Women’s formal and informal labor can transform a community from a relatively autonomous society to a participant in the national economy. It is obvious that despite the cultural, social, and political setbacks of women, small businesses controlled by women in rural communities are not only extending beyond family lifelines but can also form a networked economic foundation for future generations. The role of women in the urban and rural workforce has expanded greatly in recent times.

5. Clearly discuss some Important “Beings” and “Doings” in Capability to Function
The Capability Approach is defined by its choice of focus upon the moral significance of individuals’ capability of achieving the kind of lives they have reason to value. This distinguishes it from more established approaches to ethical evaluation, such as utilitarianism or resourcism, which focus exclusively on subjective well-being or the availability of means to the good life, respectively. A person’s capability to live a good life is defined in terms of the set of valuable ‘beings and doings’ like being in good health or having loving relationships with others to which they have real access.
6. Discuss the three Core Values of Development with relevant example
There are three main basic components or core values that serve as a conceptual basis and practical guidelines for understanding the inner meaning of development. These core values are;

Sustenance
Self-esteem and
Freedom
These core values relate to the fundamental human needs and also represents common goals sort by all individuals and societies.

Sustenance this means the ability to meet the basic necessities of life which is necessary to sustain an average human being. Such basic necessities are food, shelter, good health, protection, etc. Without these basic needs, living will be impossible. When any of these is absent or in short supply, absolute underdevelopment exists. Therefore, the basic function of any society is to provide a means of overcoming the helplessness and misery arising from lack of these basic needs. To this extent, we may say that economic development is a necessary condition for the improvement in the quality of life of the people.Without sustained and continuous economic progress, the realization of the human potential would not be possible because one has to have enough in order to have more. Rising per capita income and elimination of absolute poverty, greater employment opportunities, lessening income inequalities therefore constitutes the necessary but not the sufficient condition for measuring/ determining economic growth.

Self-esteem this means the sense of worth and self-respect of not being used as a tool by others for their own ends. All societies seek some basic form of self-esteem which may be called identity, dignity, respect, recognition, etc. It should be noted that the level of self-esteem varies from societies to societies and from cultures to cultures.

However, with proliferation of the modernizing values of developed nations, many developing countries suffer from serious cultural confusion when they come in contact with economically and technologically advanced societies.
Freedom from Servitude this means the ability to choose. Freedom here has to do with the sense of emancipation from undesirable conditions of life such as oppressive institutions, misery, dogmatic beliefs, etc.
7. Some scholars have argued that happiness has a direct correlation with more income while others disagree with the assertion.
While most people believe that having more income would make them happier, some researchers have found that the link is greatly exaggerated and mostly an illusion.
People surveyed about their own happiness and that of others with varying incomes tended to overstate the impact of income on well-being, according to a new study. Although income is widely assumed to be a good measure of well-being, the researchers found that its role is less significant than predicted and that people with higher incomes do not necessarily spend more time in more enjoyable ways. For those that disagreed, “The belief that high income is associated with good mood is widespread but mostly illusory,” People with above-average income are relatively satisfied with their lives but are barely happier than others in moment-to-moment experience, tend to be more tense, and do not spend more time in particularly enjoyable activities. While to those that agreed with the assertion, Financial stability helps people escape the everyday hassles of life, When we wonder whether money can buy happiness, we may consider the luxuries it provides, like expensive dinners and lavish vacations. But cash is key in another important way: It helps people avoid many of the day-to-day hassles that cause stress, new research shows. Money can provide calm and control, allowing us to buy our way out of unforeseen bumps in the road, whether it’s a small nuisance, like dodging a rainstorm by ordering up an Uber, or a bigger worry, like handling an unexpected hospital bills.

8. Distinguish between Economic Growth and Economic Development and tell us where we are currently as a nation in terms of growth and development.
The differences between Economic growth and Economic development are:
Economic Growth is the positive change in the indicators of economy. While Economic development is the quantitative and qualitative change in an economy.
Economic Growth refers to the increment in amount of goods and services produced by an economy. Whereas Economic development refers to the reduction and elimination of poverty, unemployment and inequality with the context of growing economy.
Economic growth means an increase in real national income / national output. While Economic development means an improvement in the quality of life and living standards, e.g. measures of literacy, life-expectancy and health care.
Economic growth refers to an increase over time in a country’s real output of goods and services (GNP) or real output per capita income. While Economic development includes process and policies by which a country improves the social, economic and political well-being of its people.
Economic growth focuses on production of goods and services. While Economic development focuses on distribution of resources.
Economic growth relates a gradual increase in one of the components of GDP; consumption, government spending, investment or net exports. Whereas Economic development relates to growth of human capital indexes and decrease in inequality.It is concerned with how people are affected.

Economic growth is single dimensional in nature as it only focuses on income of the people. Economic development is multi-dimensional in nature as it focuses on both income and improvement of living standards of the people.
Economic Growth is the precursor and prerequisite for economic development. It is the subset of economic development. While Economic development comes after economic growth. It is a positive impact of economic growth.
Indicators of economic growth are: GDP, GNI, Per capita income
While the Indicators of economic development are: Human Development Index (HDI), Human Poverty Index (HPI), Gini Coefficient, Gender Development Index (GDI), Balance of trade and Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI)
Nigeria’s output growth is at 3.4 percent in 2022 which marked the seventh consecutive quarter of growth driven by various services sectors, especially information technology, trade, and finance. Oil production has been on the decline since mid-2020, reflecting low investment and significant leakages associated with poor maintenance and theft. There’s a hike in prices of goods and services today because of fall in value of our currency in the international market. We’re among the underdeveloped countries in the world.

1. Development is an event constituting a new stage in a changing situation. Inorder for this to take place, alot has to be put in place which wouy require time,mental energy, money and other necessities. For a growing economy that needs development in different sectors, there should be creation of Jobs which will later lead to employment there by leading to a reduction in poverty,by in such situations there shouldn’t be inequality is order for proper balance to be carried on.

2. Economic Development is programs, policies or activities that seek to improve the economic well-being and quality of life for a community. The end goals of this policies is to bring a positive change in the composition of output, shift in the allocation of productive resources elimination or reduction of poverty and a reduction in inequalities and unemployment.
These policies are aimed towards making this possible

3.Yes I agree
If we take a look at the U.S economy we would discover that the run a federalism system
Which means that the state submit allocations the federal government
Which means that in order for each state to have a substantial economy the must work hard,this also creates a positive competition among states. This system has given the citizens of the state freedom to express their ideas, allowing men to chase their dreams and aim for the stars.

4. women play the role of mothers, affairs, farmers, educators, entrepreneurs, teachers, e.t.c. It is historic that women play significant roles in societal development and ensure the stability, progress, and long-term development of nations. Women also play the role of decision-makers in homes. Globally, women contribute immensely to agricultural development, comprising about 43% of the world’s agricultural labor force. In some countries, the number of women involved in the agricultural labor force increases to over 70%. Available records indicate that in Africa alone, 80% of agricultural production comes from small farmers, most of whom are rural women. It is noteworthy that agriculture is the bedrock of national development as the best approach to food security, poverty reduction, job creation, and economic stability.
At home, women, notably mothers, play the role in decision-making about family meal planning and diet. Women also initiate and preserve the nutritional and healthcare programs of children at home. In addition, women are not only caring for their children at home but are also the primary caretakers of both children and elders in every country of the world. International studies indicate that women lead in finding solutions to the problems occasioned by a change of political and economic organizations in countries.

5. The Capability Approach is defined by its choice of focus upon the moral significance of individuals’ capability of achieving the kind of lives they have reason to value. This distinguishes it from more established approaches to ethical evaluation, such as utilitarianism or resourcism, which focus exclusively on subjective well-being or the availability of means to the good life, respectively. A person’s capability to live a good life is defined in terms of the set of valuable ‘beings and doings’ like being in good health or having loving relationships with others to which they have real access.
The Capability Approach was first articulated by the Indian economist and philosopher Amartya Sen in the 1980s, and remains most closely associated with him. It has been employed extensively in the context of human development.

6.Sustenance. This refers to the capacity to meet basic necessities such as food, clothing, and shelter. Lack of even one of these means that a person’s life is not progressive. A country develops if its citizens have enough or more than enough for their basic necessities, there is growth of income, extreme poverty is addressed, and there is equality among members of society.

self-esteem The quality of life is good when there is respect, trust, and self-value. Each person has needs which can be achieved through the presence of respect, dignity, and a good reputation in society. A person’s worth as an individual cannot simply be measured by the ownership of material things which is often given emphasis by progressive capitalist countries such as the United States. In the Philippines, material wealth is not the only important thing but the love for one’s family, the family’s reputation, and a person’s dignity and self-esteem. A country is developed if this unique need of the people is addressed.

Freedom from Servitude. This freedom is drawn from liberation from oppressive systems in society, poverty and abuse, slavery, ignorance, and the absence of the freedom to choose one’s culture or religion. This freedom can be seen in the range of choices in a society. What is good about development is not only the joy of being free from poverty but also the availability of a wide range of choices. In general, freedom prevails if people live a comfortable life, if they have the freedom to choose their religion, to vote and to express their opinion about administration and governance, and if they enjoy equal opportunities for education and employment.

7. it is true that happiness has a direct core relation with higher income and it is also true that it does that. Many be are living fine and happy because they have money to solve their problem but remember that the rich also cry, they also die. Despite the fact that the income of the people is increased which may make them happy, there are other factors affecting their happiness and they can be unsatisfied working condition, rich people are always insecure etc.

8. Economic growth is an automatic action. It means that it happens on its own. It does not need the involvement of economic development to increase. But for economic development to increase according to quality, economic growth is compulsory to occur. This happens because economic growth is a small yet significant role that it plays in economic development. Economic growth is a uni-dimensional approach which deals with the increase in income or output of a nation while Economic development is a multi-dimensional approach that looks into the income and as well as the quality of life of the nation.
In Nigeria, While the economy is projected to grow at an average of 3.2% in 2022-2024, the growth outlook is subject to downside risks including further declines in oil production and heightened insecurity also Worldwide gross domestic product in 2021 was at about 12.259 USD per capita. GDP in Nigeria, on the other hand, reached USD 2.085 per capita, or 440.78 billion USD in the whole country. Nigeria is therefore currently ranked 30 of the major economies and last but not the least Nigeria can be classified as a Stage 3 in Rostow’s Modernization Model and Nigeria is an LDC. Nigeria can be classified as a Stage 3 because of its biggest industries, such as footwear, chemicals, cement and other construction materials, printing, ceramics, and textiles.

AMAECHI EMMANUELLA ATHANASIUS
2019/242299
Economics Education

ANSWER:
1. Economic growth is the most powerful instrument for reducing poverty and improving the quality of life in developing countries.it makes sense that poverty rates are related to the overall health of the economy. As the economy grows, so do opportunities for employment and growth. stronger labor markets and higher income levels tend to help families living in poverty move above the poverty threshold. while availability of work opportunity helps to eliminate unemployment and inequality within a growing economy.

2. i Economic Development involves changes in composition of output. public expenditure improve economic growth by increasing productive capacity, as well as, gross product of the local economy in critical economy sectors. nonetheless, increased public expenditures will also lead to inflation and reduce government budget,thereby inflicting detrimental influence on the economy.
ii. Economic Development involves shift in the allocation of productive resources. productivity is the key aspect of economic growth. However, it is also important to choose what should be produced with the growing importance of taking into account the issue of ecology, care for the protection of the natural environment.

3. I agree with the words of Amartya Sen “Development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom, poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systematic social deprivation neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or over activity of repressive states. The high rate of poverty as well as tyranny in the economy, keeps the economy stagnant and also poor economic opportunities. poor economic opportunities in-terms of job or unemployment opportunities,poor economic rejuvenation, leads to under or un-development in the economy.

4.They play the role of mothers, caretakers in family affairs, farmers, educators, entrepreneurs, teachers, e.t.c. It is historic that women play significant roles in societal development and ensure the stability, progress, and long-term development of nations. Women also play the role of decision-makers in homes.

5.capabilities approach is a normative approach to human welfare that concentrates on the actual capability of person to achieve lives they value rather than solely having a right or freedom to do so. capability is a possibility of a person in a deeply poverty-stricken area to find employment and support a family. However, such a possibility may not be real considering external circumstance for example, no food, clothing or shelter.

6. There are three core values of development: (i) sustenance, (ii) self- esteem, and (iii) freedom. Sustenance: Sustenance is the ability to meet basic needs of people. All people have certain basic needs without which life would be impossible. These basic needs include food, shelter, health, and protection.
Sustenance: Sustenance is the ability to meet basic needs of people. All people have certain basic needs without which life would be impossible. These basic needs include food, shelter, health, and protection. People should have access to these basic needs.
Self-Esteem: Sense of worth and self-respect and feeling of not being marginalized are extremely important for individual’s well being. All peoples and societies seek some form of self-esteem (identity, dignity, respect, honor etc.). The nature and form of self-esteem may vary from on culture to another and from time to time. Self-esteem may be based on material values: higher income or wealth may be equated with higher worthiness. One may consider individuals worthy based on their intellect or public service.
Freedom from Servitude: Human freedom, the ability to choose, is essential for the well being of individuals. Freedom involves an expanded range of choices for societies: economic and political. It involves freedom from bondage, serfdom, and other exploitative economic, social, and political relationships.

7. happiness has a direct correlation with more income, cause looking the society and the economy standard of the society, we cant possibly do anything nowadays without money. so when our happiness is derived from things that cost us money. So therefore, our happiness is deprived from how much we earn or how much income we generate,to fulfill our desire want (our happiness). So, the more income we earn the more we can satisfy that desire want (our happiness).

8.Economic growth is an increase in the production of goods and services in an economy. Increases in capital goods, labor force, technology, and human capital can all contribute to economic growth. while
Economic Development is programs, policies or activities that seek to improve the economic well-being and quality of life for a community. What “economic development” means to you will depend on the community you live in. Each community has its own opportunities, challenges, and priorities.
we are where we are as a nation,in terms of growth and development, as result of the greedy and selfish desire which has kept the nation in perpetual economical want. The greedy selfish desire of our leaders has cause lack of adequate production of goods and services in an economy, availability of technology for production, and also their inability to create more jobs opportunity.

Gabriels Sharon Chisom
2019/241572
Sharongabriels123@gmail.com

1- Professor Dudley Seers argues that development is about outcomes i.e development occurs with the reduction and elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment within a growing economy. He argues this because according to his speculations, these are indicators of development in an economy. A developing economy reduces or completely eliminates poverty among majority of the population living in the nation, they are able to afford the basic necessities needed to live healthy lives. Also, there are available jobs for all those who are willing and able to work, the rate of unemployment is significantly reduced or completely eliminated. All these are indicators that show an increase in the quality of life of those living within the economy of a nation. When these indicators are present, we can agree that development occurs in the economy.

2- Economic Development involves changes in
a) composition of output: the type of output should be considered when a nation seeks development
.
b) shift in the allocation of productive resources: for development to occur, productive resources are allocated for their best possible use. This increases efficiency thereby resulting in development
c) elimination or reduction of poverty, inequalities and unemployment:
Poverty and economic inequality must be reduced or totally eliminated. Government should invest in nation building projects that would create employment opportunities for its citizens. These would cause an increase in the incomes of the working class people and also increase the quality of their lives

3- I agree with the words of Amartya Sen and which says that “Development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom, poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systematic social deprivation neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or over activity of repressive states”. Explaining the situation of removing unfreedom, development in an economy should expand the freedom that people enjoy. These unfreedom leaves people with little choices or opportunities that affect ability to live lives that they value.
If a nation wants to be developed, it has to include the factor of good leadership because leaders play a major role in policy making decision which control the rate at which a nation develops. Bad leadership significantly slows down the development process of a country. These are the few things among the many that must be eliminated.

4- women play major roles in national development when they are educated and invested in. Their ideas would cause the establishment of new businesses which would lead to an increase in employment rate, thereby increasing the per capita income of the populations where they reside. Also, empowering women would have a rippling effect because these women would empower other women who would go on to empower other women, thereby resulting in economic development.

5- Being well-nourished : the ability to have access to good food and nutrition in an economy or nation.
Being healthy – to have access to health and healthcare facilities in a nation 
Being literate – to have access to education and educational tools in a nation
Being well-clothed – to have access to the right clothing’s suitable for the right weather conditions in an economy

6- The three core values of development are; sustenance which is the ability to meet basic needs, self-esteem which is being a person and freedom from servitude which is being able to choose.

7- I agree with the assertion that happiness has a direct correlation with more income because an increase in income leads to an increase in purchasing power. The increase in purchasing power would result In solving financial problems that might have led to depression or stress. Also, when an individual the ability to provide more of their basic needs such as food, it improves their mood. To refer to the popular saying that, a hungry man is an angry man is to conclude that a well fed man is a happy man.

8- There are multiple differences between economic growth and economic development . To begin, let us define economy growth. Economic growth is an increase in the output level or monetary income of a nation while economic development is an increase in the standard of living of a greater population in a nation. Economic growth is a unidimensional approach which deals with the increase in income or output but unlike economic growth, Economic Development uses a multidimensional approach that includes income as well as the quality of life of the population in a nation. In addition, the indicators of economic growth are GDP, GNP, GNI etc. While the indicators of economic development are industrial developments, standard of living, Human development indicators. To round up, it is important to note that economic growth is a short term process while economic development is a long term process.
As a nation, we currently experience significant economic growth, which is an increase in our output but the level of economic development remains unchanged. The quality of life of the Nigerian people doesn’t seem to improve if anything else, it’s deteriorating. It’s a situation that should be looked into and corrected.

                      Eco 361
       DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS.
1)  Prof Dudley seer argues that development is about outcomes ie development occurs with the reduction and elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment within a growing economy.
Seer suggested that family incomes should be adequate to provide a subsistence package of food,shelter,clothing and footwear.
That jobs should be available to all family heads,not only because this will Ensure that distribution of income will generally achieve subsistence consumption levels.
That Access to Education should be increased and development literacy ratio raised.and also the populace should be given an opportunity to participate in government.
2)     Apart from a rise in output, Economic Development involves changes in composition of output, shift in the allocation of productive resources and elimination or reduction of poverty, and inequality and unemployment.

   Economic development also involves creating job opportunities,stronger demand for labour.
Economic development is fundamentally Expanding the substantive freedoms that people value and these freedoms are strongly associated with improvement in general living standards,such as greater opportunities for people to become healthier and live longer.
Economic development generates Virtuous Circle of prosperity and opportunity,strong growth and Employment opportunities improve incentives for families to invest I. Education by sending their children to school.
3)  in the words of Amartya Sen ” Development requires the removal of major sources of freedom,poverty as well as tyranny,poor Economic opportunity as well as systematic social deprivation neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or over activity of repressive states.
(Yes) I would  agree with him because Development is not solely centered on the welfare of the Economy, as individuals also need to develop.
And if there is no removal of unfreedom,it restrain individuals to move about to acquire higher levels of Education,high income and good wage rate.
And so the removal of Major sources of Unfreedom,poverty,as well as tyranny,poor Economic opportunities as well as systematic social deprivation neglect of public facilities as  well as intolerance or over activity or repressive states is necessary for the Economy to Develop.
4)     Critically Discuss the Role of Women in National Development.
       They play the role of mothers,caretakers,in family affairs l,farmers,Educators,Entrepreneurs,Teachers. Women play significant roles in societal development and ensure the stability progress and long term development of nations.
Globally women. Contribute immensely to 
agricultural development Comprising about 43% of the world’s labor force.
As Educators the role or contribution of Women to society’s transition from pre-literate to the literate period is highly significant.
Basic Education is key to a nation’s ability to develop and achieve sustainable policies and programs.it is Evident that Education helps to improve Agricultural output.
The role of Women is at the front end of the chain of improvement,leading to the family and community long term capacity.
5)   Clearly Discuss some important “beings ” and  “Doings” Capability to function.
Capability to function refers to a person’s set of achievable functioning vectors.
Accordingto sen,people’s well-being depends upon what they are actually Capable of doing and being.
“Beings” and “Doings” Capability to function is about the  achievements of Valuable functioning,which are multiple aspects of a person’s life,what the person is and does.and is Based on an individuals resources,monetary, and non monetary Constraints,as well as the individuals Preferences over Different life Goals,the individual will select and reach a certain amount of functioning achievements.
6)  Discuss the three  core values of Development .
A)        Sustenance
Sustenance is the ability to meet basic needs of people,All people have certain basic needs without which life would be impossible the Basic needs include food,shelter.

      Prt 2.
Self -Esteem
Freedom from servitude.
Self-esteem.
A second universal component of good life is self- esteem- a sense of worth and self-respect- of not being used as a tool by others for their own ends. Due to the significance attached to material values in developed nations, worthiness and esteem are now-a-days increasingly conferred only on countries that possess economic wealth and technological power- those that have developed.
        Freedom from servitude.
Arthur Lewis stressed the relationship between economic growth and freedom from servitude when he concluded that “the advantage of economic growth is not that wealth increases happiness, but that it increases the range of human choice.” Wealth can enable a person to gain greater control over nature and his physical environment than they would have if they remained poor.

It also gives them the freedom to choose greater leisure. The concept of human freedom should encompass various components of political freedom, freedom of expression, political participation and equality
 
7)    some scholars have argued that happiness has a direct correlation with more income while others disagree with the assertion.
I would say “YES” To an extent.Happiness do have a direct correlation with higher income.
   

 8)  Economic growth means an increase in real national income / national output. Economic development means an improvement in the quality of life and living standards, e.g. measures of literacy, life-expectancy and health care.

Okarfor Charles chidozie
2019/248121
Combined social science
Economic/political sciences
300l

Answers
(1 )Before Dudley Seer propounded his
theory of development, many economists
believed that development is achieved when
a country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
grows at 5% to 7% above and the increases
are sustained over a long period of time.
They believed that when such increases
occurred, then that country has achieved
development. To them, development was
based mainly on material increase. Also, it
was believed that economic development is
achieved when there is a change in the
structure of production and employment so
that the share of agriculture in GDP and in
employment declines, while that of
manufacturing and services increases. These
believe made development economists to
focus more on industrialization at the
expense of agriculture (Todaro & Smith,
2006). Based on the believe, many
developing countries in the 1960s and 1970s
experienced increased in their Gross
Domestic Product but the general levels of
living of the masses remained unchanged.
That is, the increases in growth (GDP) do
not have any direct effect on quality of life
of the people.
The section tends to examine and analyze
the three development indicators as
propounded by Dudley Seer and relate it to
the present situation concerning Nigeria’s
Development.

i. Poverty – The United Nations – UN
(1995) defined poverty in absolute and
relative term. They examined absolute
poverty as a state made up by serious denial
of basic human needs including food,
shelter, safe drinking water, sanitation
facilities, health, education and information.
To them, absolute poverty does not depend
only on income but also on access to life.
Relative poverty was defined by the UN in
terms of minimum acceptable standard of
living within a society in which a particular
person lives.

ii. Inequality: The United Nations defined
inequality as the state of not being equal,
especially in status, rights and opportunities
(UN, 2015). Development theory was
concern with inequalities in standard of
living, such as inequalities in
income/wealth, education, health and
nutrition. Nigeria is Africa’s largest
economy, yet inequality has reached
extreme level that the country’s five richestmen worth $29.9 billion could end extreme
poverty at national level, yet a lot are facing
hunger Oxfam report (2017). Nigeria’
economy has been growing in terms of GDP
but without creating adequate opportunities
for the broader population. Resources are
unevenly distributed, resulting in persistent
inequalities.

iii. Unemployment: The International
Labor Organization (ILO) defined
unemployment as all persons of working
age (15 years and above) who were not in
employment but are engaging seeking
employment during a particular period and
were currently available to take up
employment given a job opportunity. The
United States Bureau of Labor Statistics
defined unemployment as person (s) who do
not have job, have actively looked for work
in the prior 4 weeks, and are currently
available for work. Rate of unemployment
is the number of people actively looking for
job as a percentage of the labor force. The
rate of unemployment in Nigeria especially
among the active labor force (youth) is very
alarming. According to the Nigeria National
Bureau of Statistics (2019) report, youth
unemployment rate averaged 23.63% from
2014 until it reaches an all time high of 38%
in the 2nd quarter of 2018. During the 3rd
quarter of 2018, the unemployment rate was
39.7% which is the combination of 23.1%
unemployment rate and 16.6%
underemployment rate. The Bureau
projected that if the rising trend of
unemployment is not urgently curtailed, the
unemployment rate will reach 33.5% by
2020.
(2)In a country’s economic development the role of economic factors is decisive. The stock of capital and the rate of capital accumulation in most cases settle the question whether at a juven point of time a country will grow or not. There are a few other economic factors which also have some bearing on development but their importance is hardly comparable to that of capital formation. The surplus of foodgrains output available to support urban population, foreign trade conditions and the nature of economic system are some such factors whose role in economic development has to be analyzed.
Economists generally agree that economic development and growth are influenced by four factors: human resources, physical capital, natural resources and technology.
3) I would agree to this assertion because,Development as Freedom is Amartya Sen’s first book after receiving the Nobel and the most widely read of all of his works. Based on the author’s World Bank Fellow Lectures in 1996, this descriptive, non-technical overview of welfare economics argues that ‘development’ should be viewed not in terms of economic measures (e.g. GDP growth, average annual income) but in terms of the real ‘freedoms’ that people can enjoy such as economic facilities and social opportunities. Sen describes human freedom as both the primary end objective and the principle means of development; economic measures are merely the means to this end.
4)Globally, women contribute immensely to agricultural development, comprising about 43% of the world’s agricultural labor force. In some countries, the number of women involved in the agricultural labor force increases to over 70%. Available records indicate that in Africa alone, 80% of agricultural production comes from small farmers, most of whom are rural women. It is noteworthy that agriculture is the bedrock of national development as the best approach to food security, poverty reduction, job creation, and economic stability.

At home, women, notably mothers, play the role in decision-making about family meal planning and diet. Women also initiate and preserve the nutritional and healthcare programs of children at home. In addition, women are not only caring for their children at home but are also the primary caretakers of both children and elders in every country of the world. International studies indicate that women lead in finding solutions to the problems occasioned by a change of political and economic organizations in countries, thereby helping the family adjust to new realities and challenges. Indeed, women are the initiators who play important role in facilitating changes in family life.
5)As educators, the role or contribution of women to society’s transition from pre-literate to the literate period is highly significant. Basic education is key to a nation’s ability to develop and achieve sustainable policies and programs. It is evident that education helps to improve agricultural productivity, enhances the status of girls and women, stabilizes population growth rates, enhances environmental protection and, increases the standard of living. It is the mother at home who most often urges children of both genders to attend and stay in school. The role of women is at the front end of the chain of improvement, leading to the family and the community’s long term capacity.
The role of women in providing an improved and sustainable workforce is also significant and exciting. The women’s share of the global workforce is about 45.5%.
6)Sustenance
Sustenance refers to the basic needs of a human being without which survival would not be possible. These needs include food, shelter, security and good health. Shortage of any of these necessities implies a situation of severe underdevelopment of the economy. Development, therefore, must lead to the reduction of these shortages and fulfil these basic needs of the population. The benefits of growth must be accompanied by a reduction in this absolute poverty situation. As a result, improvement in the quality of overall life in an economy is bound to occur.

Self-esteem
Every individual is entitled to a sense of self-worth or self-respect. Although the nature of self-esteem may change with society or the economy, the basic idea remains the same. All people have the right to a life of dignity and honour. Respect, however, is often attached to wealth and the underdevelopment of an economy can be a burden on people’s self-esteem. Hence to promote self-worth, development must be spread across the whole economy and not just certain sections within it.

Freedom
Freedom refers to not just freedom from servitude, but also from discrimination, oppressive beliefs and practices. Equal opportunity and freedom in every aspect of the social, legal, cultural and political situation are necessary for every individual. Everyone must be free to choose and have control over their own life and actions. Growth without freedom has been observed in many nations, which defeats the purpose of development.
>Money reduces intense stress: There was no significant difference in how often the participants experienced distressing events—no matter their income, they recorded a similar number of daily frustrations. But those with higher incomes experienced less negative intensity from those events.

>More money brings greater control: Those with higher incomes felt they had more control over negative events and that control reduced their stress. People with ample incomes felt more agency to deal with whatever hassles may arise.

>Higher incomes lead to higher life satisfaction: People with higher incomes were generally more satisfied with their lives.
“It’s not that rich people don’t have problems,” Jachimowicz says, “but having money allows you to fix problems and resolve them more quickly.”
8)The term economic growth is defined as the process whereby the country’s real
national and per capita income increases over a long period of time.
This definition of economic growth consists of the following features of economic
growth:
Economic Growth implies a process of increase in National Income and
Per-Capita Income. The increase in Per-Capita income is the better measure
of Economic Growth since it reflects increase in the improvement of living
standards of masses.

Economic Growth is measured by increase in real National Income and
not just the increase in money income or the nominal national income. In
other words the increase should be in terms of increase of output of goods and
services, and not due to a mere increase in the market prices of existing goods.

Increase in Real Income should be Over a Long Period: The increase of real
national income and per-capita income should be sustained over a long period
of time. The short-run seasonal or temporary increases in income should not
be confused with economic growth.

Increase in income should be based on Increase in Productive Capacity:
Increase in Income can be sustained only when this increase results from some
durable increase in productive capacity of the economy like modernization or
use of new technology in production, strengthening of infrastructure like
transport network, improved electricity generation etc.

While on the other hand,Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Sustainable development includes the protection of future economic growth and
future development. In other words, it means a better quality of life for everyone,
now and for generations to come.Sustainable development includes the protection
of future economic growth and future development. Growth is essential, but
sustainable development requires it to be different. It must become more concerned
about the physical environment not only to present generation, but to the future
generation also. It means that the current consumption cannot be financed for long
by increasing economic debt and ecological imbalance which future generation
will pay.Sustainable development constantly seeks to achieve social and economic
progress in ways that will not exhaust the earth’s finite natural resources.
Sustainable development is a process of development in which economic and other
policies are designed to bring about development which is economically, socially
and ecologically sustainable. The concept thus is pro-people, pro-job and pro-nature. It gives highest priority to poverty reduction, productive employment,
social integration and environmental regeneration.

Arinze Ebuka kelvin
2019/246530
300l

Answers
(1 )Before Dudley Seer propounded his
theory of development, many economists
believed that development is achieved when
a country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
grows at 5% to 7% above and the increases
are sustained over a long period of time.
They believed that when such increases
occurred, then that country has achieved
development. To them, development was
based mainly on material increase. Also, it
was believed that economic development is
achieved when there is a change in the
structure of production and employment so
that the share of agriculture in GDP and in
employment declines, while that of
manufacturing and services increases. These
believe made development economists to
focus more on industrialization at the
expense of agriculture (Todaro & Smith,
2006). Based on the believe, many
developing countries in the 1960s and 1970s
experienced increased in their Gross
Domestic Product but the general levels of
living of the masses remained unchanged.
That is, the increases in growth (GDP) do
not have any direct effect on quality of life
of the people.
These made many economists to
reconsider what development really is and
hence glamour for direct attack on
widespread of poverty, increasing inequality
in income distribution and rising
unemployment. To them development
should have a “human face”. That is, it
should be something that should be seen in
the lives of the people.

The section tends to examine and analyze
the three development indicators as
propounded by Dudley Seer and relate it to
the present situation concerning Nigeria’s
Development.

i. Poverty – The United Nations – UN
(1995) defined poverty in absolute and
relative term. They examined absolute
poverty as a state made up by serious denial
of basic human needs including food,
shelter, safe drinking water, sanitation
facilities, health, education and information.
To them, absolute poverty does not depend
only on income but also on access to life.
Relative poverty was defined by the UN in
terms of minimum acceptable standard of
living within a society in which a particular
person lives.

ii. Inequality: The United Nations defined
inequality as the state of not being equal,
especially in status, rights and opportunities
(UN, 2015). Development theory was
concern with inequalities in standard of
living, such as inequalities in
income/wealth, education, health and
nutrition. Nigeria is Africa’s largest
economy, yet inequality has reached
extreme level that the country’s five richestmen worth $29.9 billion could end extreme
poverty at national level, yet a lot are facing
hunger Oxfam report (2017). Nigeria’
economy has been growing in terms of GDP
but without creating adequate opportunities
for the broader population. Resources are
unevenly distributed, resulting in persistent
inequalities.

iii. Unemployment: The International
Labor Organization (ILO) defined
unemployment as all persons of working
age (15 years and above) who were not in
employment but are engaging seeking
employment during a particular period and
were currently available to take up
employment given a job opportunity. The
United States Bureau of Labor Statistics
defined unemployment as person (s) who do
not have job, have actively looked for work
in the prior 4 weeks, and are currently
available for work. Rate of unemployment
is the number of people actively looking for
job as a percentage of the labor force. The
rate of unemployment in Nigeria especially
among the active labor force (youth) is very
alarming. According to the Nigeria National
Bureau of Statistics (2019) report, youth
unemployment rate averaged 23.63% from
2014 until it reaches an all time high of 38%
in the 2nd quarter of 2018. During the 3rd
quarter of 2018, the unemployment rate was
39.7% which is the combination of 23.1%
unemployment rate and 16.6%
underemployment rate. The Bureau
projected that if the rising trend of
unemployment is not urgently curtailed, the
unemployment rate will reach 33.5% by
2020.

Development economics is a branch of economics which deals with economic aspects of the development process in low- and middle- income countries. Its focus is not only on methods of promoting economic development, economic growth and structural change but also on improving the potential for the mass of the population, for example, through health, education and workplace conditions, whether through public or private channels.

Development economics involves the creation of theories and methods that aid in the determination of policies and practices and can be implemented at either the domestic or international level. This may involve restructuring market incentives or using mathematical methods such as intertemporal optimization for project analysis, or it may involve a mixture of quantitative and qualitative methods. Common topics include growth theory, poverty and inequality, human capital, and institutions.

(2)In a country’s economic development the role of economic factors is decisive. The stock of capital and the rate of capital accumulation in most cases settle the question whether at a juven point of time a country will grow or not. There are a few other economic factors which also have some bearing on development but their importance is hardly comparable to that of capital formation. The surplus of foodgrains output available to support urban population, foreign trade conditions and the nature of economic system are some such factors whose role in economic development has to be analyzed.
Economists generally agree that economic development and growth are influenced by four factors: human resources, physical capital, natural resources and technology. Highly developed countries have governments that focus on these areas. Less-developed countries, even those with high amounts of natural resources, will lag behind when they fail to promote research in technology and improve the skills and education of their workers.

3) I would agree to this assertion because,Development as Freedom is Amartya Sen’s first book after receiving the Nobel and the most widely read of all of his works. Based on the author’s World Bank Fellow Lectures in 1996, this descriptive, non-technical overview of welfare economics argues that ‘development’ should be viewed not in terms of economic measures (e.g. GDP growth, average annual income) but in terms of the real ‘freedoms’ that people can enjoy such as economic facilities and social opportunities. Sen describes human freedom as both the primary end objective and the principle means of development; economic measures are merely the means to this end.

4)Globally, women contribute immensely to agricultural development, comprising about 43% of the world’s agricultural labor force. In some countries, the number of women involved in the agricultural labor force increases to over 70%. Available records indicate that in Africa alone, 80% of agricultural production comes from small farmers, most of whom are rural women. It is noteworthy that agriculture is the bedrock of national development as the best approach to food security, poverty reduction, job creation, and economic stability.

At home, women, notably mothers, play the role in decision-making about family meal planning and diet. Women also initiate and preserve the nutritional and healthcare programs of children at home. In addition, women are not only caring for their children at home but are also the primary caretakers of both children and elders in every country of the world. International studies indicate that women lead in finding solutions to the problems occasioned by a change of political and economic organizations in countries, thereby helping the family adjust to new realities and challenges. Indeed, women are the initiators who play important role in facilitating changes in family life. The UN Women Watch organization asserts that ” rural women play a key role in supporting their households and communities in achieving food and nutritional security, generating income, and improving rural livelihoods and overall wellbeing.

5)As educators, the role or contribution of women to society’s transition from pre-literate to the literate period is highly significant. Basic education is key to a nation’s ability to develop and achieve sustainable policies and programs. It is evident that education helps to improve agricultural productivity, enhances the status of girls and women, stabilizes population growth rates, enhances environmental protection and, increases the standard of living. It is the mother at home who most often urges children of both genders to attend and stay in school. The role of women is at the front end of the chain of improvement, leading to the family and the community’s long term capacity.
The role of women in providing an improved and sustainable workforce is also significant and exciting. The women’s share of the global workforce is about 45.5%. Women’s formal and informal labor can transform a community from a relatively autonomous society to a participant in the national economy. It is obvious that despite the cultural, social, and political setbacks of women, small businesses controlled by women in rural communities are not only extending beyond family lifelines but can also form a networked economic foundation for future generations. The role of women in the urban and rural workforce has expanded greatly in recent times.

6)The definition of the term development underwent a change. Along with growth, the role of redistribution of wealth to reduce inequalities, alleviate poverty and reduce unemployment was emphasized. Focus shifted from just growth in per capita income to a more wide variety of social and political changes accompanied by growth. A multidimensional concept of development emerged to include certain necessary components for development. Denis Goulet suggested three core values necessary for the development of an economy:

Sustenance
Sustenance refers to the basic needs of a human being without which survival would not be possible. These needs include food, shelter, security and good health. Shortage of any of these necessities implies a situation of severe underdevelopment of the economy. Development, therefore, must lead to the reduction of these shortages and fulfil these basic needs of the population. The benefits of growth must be accompanied by a reduction in this absolute poverty situation. As a result, improvement in the quality of overall life in an economy is bound to occur.

Self-esteem
Every individual is entitled to a sense of self-worth or self-respect. Although the nature of self-esteem may change with society or the economy, the basic idea remains the same. All people have the right to a life of dignity and honour. Respect, however, is often attached to wealth and the underdevelopment of an economy can be a burden on people’s self-esteem. Hence to promote self-worth, development must be spread across the whole economy and not just certain sections within it.

Freedom
Freedom refers to not just freedom from servitude, but also from discrimination, oppressive beliefs and practices. Equal opportunity and freedom in every aspect of the social, legal, cultural and political situation are necessary for every individual. Everyone must be free to choose and have control over their own life and actions. Growth without freedom has been observed in many nations, which defeats the purpose of development.

7)Higher income amounts to lower stress
In one study, 522 participants kept a diary for 30 days, tracking daily events and their emotional responses to them. Participants’ incomes in the previous year ranged from less than $10,000 to $150,000 or more. They found:

>Money reduces intense stress: There was no significant difference in how often the participants experienced distressing events—no matter their income, they recorded a similar number of daily frustrations. But those with higher incomes experienced less negative intensity from those events.

>More money brings greater control: Those with higher incomes felt they had more control over negative events and that control reduced their stress. People with ample incomes felt more agency to deal with whatever hassles may arise.

>Higher incomes lead to higher life satisfaction: People with higher incomes were generally more satisfied with their lives.
“It’s not that rich people don’t have problems,” Jachimowicz says, “but having money allows you to fix problems and resolve them more quickly.”

8)The term economic growth is defined as the process whereby the country’s real
national and per capita income increases over a long period of time.
This definition of economic growth consists of the following features of economic
growth:
Economic Growth implies a process of increase in National Income and
Per-Capita Income. The increase in Per-Capita income is the better measure
of Economic Growth since it reflects increase in the improvement of living
standards of masses.

Economic Growth is measured by increase in real National Income and
not just the increase in money income or the nominal national income. In
other words the increase should be in terms of increase of output of goods and
services, and not due to a mere increase in the market prices of existing goods.

Increase in Real Income should be Over a Long Period: The increase of real
national income and per-capita income should be sustained over a long period
of time. The short-run seasonal or temporary increases in income should not
be confused with economic growth.

Increase in income should be based on Increase in Productive Capacity:
Increase in Income can be sustained only when this increase results from some
durable increase in productive capacity of the economy like modernization or
use of new technology in production, strengthening of infrastructure like
transport network, improved electricity generation etc.

While on the other hand,Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Sustainable development includes the protection of future economic growth and
future development. In other words, it means a better quality of life for everyone,
now and for generations to come.Sustainable development includes the protection
of future economic growth and future development. Growth is essential, but
sustainable development requires it to be different. It must become more concerned
about the physical environment not only to present generation, but to the future
generation also. It means that the current consumption cannot be financed for long
by increasing economic debt and ecological imbalance which future generation
will pay.Sustainable development constantly seeks to achieve social and economic
progress in ways that will not exhaust the earth’s finite natural resources.
Sustainable development is a process of development in which economic and other
policies are designed to bring about development which is economically, socially
and ecologically sustainable. The concept thus is pro-people, pro-job and pro-nature. It gives highest priority to poverty reduction, productive employment,
social integration and environmental regeneration.

1. The concentration on national income as a goal for reducing poverty, according to Dudley Seers, “avoided the underlying issues of development” and he suggested “redefining how development was assessed.” He suggested emphasizing political independence, population growth, and education as more socially relevant indicators to better solve development issues. According to Seers, “there is no real ‘growth'” when the advantages of progress and technology exclusively benefit a select group of individuals in the industrialized world who are already affluent. Furthermore, “statistics offices would produce more suitable information if governments become more engaged in social metrics.”

2. The role of compositional changes appears to depend greatly on how one divides GDP into components—by type of output, by type of expenditure, or by type of producer. Composition is an important part of stabilization in any economy as it determines how developed the economy is by each composition.
Looking at the aggregate output, GDP depends on aggregate investment, Government expenditure and net-export. Since development considers long term growth, government spending in the long run may hinder the economy. As it spends interest rates increases to a point that it hinders aggregate investment. When this happens people pull out their investment from the country and this further hinders the overall development of the country.
3. According yo Brussels Times – When money is freedom – or a precondition of being free – then poverty is unfreedom. Poverty obstructs individual freedom and Socio-economic deprivation Essentially limits a person’s ability to fully develop himself, to be in charge of his own life and successfully pursue his own dreams.
On tyranny as a major source of unfreedom, one must pity countries like North Korea, Cambodia, and Zimbabwe where tyranny was endured for over 40years. Robert Mogabe who was the country’s president for 30 years made it so that the essence of democracy was farfetched. His rigime was highly corrupt that no peaceful revolution was even possible, but political and financial bankruptcy finally pushed the dictator back to the wall.
On the aspect of poor economic opportunity, a typical case is a family of four supported by a minimum wage worker still living below the poverty line, and yet still pays taxes to the government. However, instead of this there should be a replacement by Minimum wage increase, quality education, job opportunities, and access to healthy food. It is only then we can say that there is freedom.

4. The role that women okay in the development of any nation can not be overemphasized. In her 2007 TEDTalk, Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala had opined that Some of the best people to invest in in Africa are the women.

They play the role of mothers, caretakers in family affairs, farmers, educators, entrepreneurs, teachers, e.t.c. It is historic that women play significant roles in societal development and ensure the stability, progress, and long-term development of nations. Women also play the role of decision-makers in homes. Globally, women contribute immensely to agricultural development. According to Okadabooks.com, women comprise about 43% of the world’s agricultural labor force. In some countries, the number of women involved in the agricultural labor force increases to over 70%. Available records indicate that in Africa alone, 80% of agricultural production comes from small farmers, most of whom are rural women.
However, It should be noted that agriculture is the bedrock of national development as the best approach to food security, poverty reduction, job creation, and economic stability.
5. Being able to live long – This is a state of living long enough and the absence of accidents or any physical attacks that are life threatening.
Being well nourished – This is a state of looking good as a result of eating nutritious meals.
Being healthy – This is a state of being well enough to do all kinds of things humanly possible.
Being literate – This is the state of being able to read all kinds of books.
Being well clothed – This is the state of wearing goof clothes that does not hinder one’s ability to function.
Being mobile – this is a state of not being restricted from moving from one country to another, and no restrictions on movement from one job to another.

6. Sustenance. This refers to the ability to provide for one’s basic needs. Food, clothing, and shelter are examples of such needs. A person’s life is not progressing if even one of these is lacking. If a nation’s residents have enough or even more than they need for their fundamental needs, there is income growth, severe poverty is addressed, and there is equality among the population, then that nation has developed.

Self-esteem, or a feeling of value and regard for oneself, is a second universal element of the good life. It means that each individual should be treated with respect and according to their rights. Although these values vary from nation to nation and from civilization to society, everyone want their own prestige, identity, and recognition. Progressive capitalist nations like the United States frequently emphasize that a person’s value cannot just be determined by their possession of material possessions. The love for one’s family, the reputation of the family, as well as a person’s dignity and self-esteem, is believed to be more significant in the Philippines than material prosperity. Each individual therefore has needs that can be met by the presence of others.
Freedom from Servitude. This is concerned with human freedom. This freedom is drawn from liberation from oppressive systems in society. And the good thing about development is not only the happiness of being free from poverty but also the availability of a wide range of choices. As Arthur Lewis says:” The advantage of economic growth is not that wealth increases happiness, but that it increases the range of human choice”. In general, freedom abounds when people live a comfortable life, when they have the freedom to choose their religion, to vote and to express their opinion about administratinn and governance, and when they enjoy equal opportunities for education and employment.

7. According to a release from Matthew Killingsworth, senior fellow at Wharton and research author, money gives people the freedom to choose how they want to live their life.
A recent study from The Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania found that income, even at $75,000, had a positive impact on people’s wellbeing. According to the statistics, all measures of well-being continued to increase with income over a wide range of income levels and didn’t plateau at $75,000 per year.
“At a personal level, it shows that as people grow in their jobs and their earnings climb, it has the ability to actually improve their lives (instead of reaching a limit once they reach $75,000),” adds Killingsworth.
This may indicate that on a more general social level, “continuing economic growth in the decades ahead may still have the power to increase people’s well-being,” he claims.
However, with all these researchs to know the actual correlation between income and happiness, there still isn’t a clear trend. According to Dr. Tony, there is no perfect correlation between happiness and income – people could be poor and happy, and rich but unhappy. Once per capita income increase above $10,000 to $20,000, the percentage of people who say they are happy tend to increase. And the factors that affect happiness includes
Family relationships – A positive family relationships tends to spark up a good bond between families and thereby increases happiness of individuals in that family.
Financial conditions – As studies have shown, financial status tend to determine the happiness of an individual. An increase in real income results to an increase in overall well-being and happiness.
Work satisfaction – In most underdeveloped countries the course that a person studied in the university doesn’t relates to the kind of jobs they are offered. This tends to reduce their level of happiness and overall well-being.
Community and friends – A person’s environment tends to determine their level of well-being. A happy community can birth a happy individual and a healthy friendship can result to a happy individual.
Health and healthcare service – The popular phrase which says that Health is Wealth is true in this context because, it is only when we are healthy that we can think about a greater good. And if we can think about a greater good, happiness can’t be farfetched.
Personal freedom – According to Dariusforoux.com, true personal freedom is to live as you are, to do what you want, and to spend time with people you like. For many of us, true freedom is a distant dream. So if our personal freedom is hindered, our happiness is not guaranteed.
Personal values: Values that are more focused on one’s own development and self-expansion help people be happier, but values that are more concerned with society and one’s own safety tend to make people less happy. Because a self-affirming, self-enhancing focus on oneself becomes even more crucial the less help one can expect from society, these connections are particularly strong in less egalitarian cultures.

8. Economic Growth is the positive change in the indicators of economy. While, Economic development is the quantitative and qualitative change in an economy.
Economic Growth refers to the increment in amount of goods and services produced by an economy. While, Economic development refers to the reduction and elimination of poverty, unemployment and inequality with the context of growing economy.

Economic growth means an increase in real national income / national output. While, Economic development means an improvement in the quality of life and living standards, e.g. measures of literacy, life-expectancy and health care.
It refers to an increase over time in a country’s real output of goods and services (GNP) or real output per capita income. While, Economic development includes process and policies by which a country improves the social, economic and political well-being of its people.
Economic growth focuses on production of goods and services. While, Economic development focuses on distribution of resources.
Economic growth relates a gradual increase in one of the components of GDP; consumption, government spending, investment or net exports.While, Economic development relates to growth of human capital indexes and decrease in inequality. It is concerned with how people are affected.
Economic growth is single dimensional in nature as it only focuses on income of the people. While, Economic development is multi-dimensional in nature as it focuses on both income and improvement of living standards of the people.
Economic Growth is the precursor and prerequisite for economic development. It is the subset of economic development. While, Economic development comes after economic growth. It is a positive impact of economic growth.
Indicators of economic growth are: GDP, GNI And Per capita income. While, Indicators of economic development are: Human Development Index (HDI), Human Poverty Index (HPI), Gini Coefficient, Gender Development Index (GDI), Balance of trade, Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI)
Economic growth It is for short term/short period. It is measured in certain time frame/period. While, economic development is a continuous and long-term process. Economic development does not have specific time period to measure.

8. State of Nigeria in terms of Economic growth
The Economy of Nigeria is a middle-income, mixed economy and emerging market with expanding manufacturing, financial, service, communications,technology, and entertainment sectors. It is ranked as the 27th-largest economy in the world in terms of nominal GDP, and the 24th-largest in terms of purchasing power parity and the largest Sub Saharan Africa’s economy
In the third quarter of 2022, Nigeria’s economy grew by 2.25% from a year earlier. In other words, the bureau of statistics reports that real GDP rose at a quarterly rate of 9.68% in Q3 2022, suggesting stronger economic activity than in the quarter before. The total nominal GDP for the quarter under review was N52,255,809.62 million. The main driver of growth since late 2020 has been the non-oil sector, which grew at a slower rate of 4.27% in Q3 (compared to 4.77% in Q2). In other words, the non-oil sector contributed 94.34 percent of the country’s GDP in real terms in the third quarter of 2022, up from the percentage seen in the third quarter of 2021, which was 94.3 percent. As a result of decreasing oil output, the oil sector contracted by 22.67%, following a decline of 11.77% in the previous quarter. Vanguardgnr.com and tradingmacroeconomics.com.
State of Nigeria in terms of economic development
We are going to be considering Human Development Index(HDI). The development of good quality human resources and utilization of their potential ensures the development of a nation. Therefore, the Human Development Index (HDI) emphasizes that people and their capabilities are the key criteria to assess the development of a country, not alone GNP/capita. An upper trend of HDI ensures that the fruits of economic growth are reaching the common citizenry, instead of being parked in a few pockets. If two countries with the same level of GNI/capita, end up with different HDI, it indicates either wrong policy choices or its implementation by the government of the nation.

A long and healthy life, knowledge, and a reasonable standard of living are the three main components of HDI, according to Skyline University Nigeria. It is the geometric mean of the normalized indices in each of these three dimensions. When these three factors are carefully examined, the perception of the average person regarding the accessibility of the standard of living, health, and education enjoyed by people of a country is revealed, which subsequently contributes to a high index score. The more closely the value on the index approaches 1.0, the better the position in terms of human development. Nigeria’s HDI in 2022 is 0.534, which places it in the worldwide center of the range.

AGBO EBUBE EDITH
2017/249475
Monetarism is about how change in money supply affects the position of economical activities in a nation or society.
Monetarism
Monetarism is the theory or practice of controlling the supply of money as the chief method of stabilizing the economy.
Monetary theory posits that a change in money supply is a key driver of economic activity. A simple formula, the equation of exchange, governs monetary theory: MV = PQ. The Federal Reserve (Fed) has three main levers to control the money supply: the reserve ratio, discount rate, and open market operations.
A monetarist is an economist who holds the strong belief that money supply—including physical currency, deposits, and credit—is the primary factor affecting demand in an economy. Consequently, the economy’s performance—its growth or contraction—can be regulated by changes in the money supply.

ILAMI BENISON IBOH
2019/241788
bilami35@gmail.com
1
For Prof Dudley Seers and others, if a Nation reaches it’s Economic Growth target without an improvement in levels of living (living standards) of of its people then it cannot be called Development.
For him, the questions about Development were
– What has been happening to Poverty?
– What has been happening to Inequality?
– What has been happening to Unemployment?
It can only be called Development if and only if at least 2 or all 3 of these areas (Poverty, Inequality and Unemployment) have declined from high levels else it cannot be called Development even if Per Capita Income doubles.

3. Development is the process of expanding human freedom. It is “the enhancement of freedoms that allow people to lead lives that they have reason to live”. Hence “development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom: poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systemic social deprivation, neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or overactivity of repressive states”.

Sen argues that there are five types of interrelated freedoms, namely, political freedom, economic facilities, social opportunities, transparency and security. The state has a role in supporting freedoms by providing public education, health care, social safety nets, good macroeconomic policies, productivity and protecting the environment.
Freedom implies not just to do something, but the capabilities to make it happen. What people can achieve (their capabilities) is influenced by “economic opportunities, political liberties, social powers, and the enabling condition of good health, basic education, and the encouragement and cultivation of initiatives”.
Moreover, freedom deficits still exist in so-called developed countries, and the situation may be moving backwards. Political freedoms are compromised by vested interest politics in the US, and oligarchic powers in Japan and much of Europe. Protectionism of large enterprises, especially in Europe and Japan, limit the economic freedom of small and medium size enterprises. Social opportunities are constrained in most countries as the rich have much better access than the poor to health and education services. Sen does us all a good service in raising the issue of cultural freedoms. The more these issues are discussed the better. But progress will require massive changes in attitudes.
More fundamentally, Sen does not address the issue of how individual freedoms should be nested into society, where we all have to forego some freedom in order to live together peace.

4. Globally, women contribute immensely to agricultural development, comprising about 43% of the world’s agricultural labor force. In some countries, the number of women involved in the agricultural labor force increases to over 70%. Available records indicate that in Africa alone, 80% of agricultural production comes from small farmers, most of whom are rural women. It is noteworthy that agriculture is the bedrock of national development as the best approach to food security, poverty reduction, job creation, and economic stability.

At home, women, notably mothers, play the role in decision-making about family meal planning and diet. Women also initiate and preserve the nutritional and healthcare programs of children at home. In addition, women are not only caring for their children at home but are also the primary caretakers of both children and elders in every country of the world. International studies indicate that women lead in finding solutions to the problems occasioned by a change of political and economic organizations in countries, thereby helping the family adjust to new realities and challenges. Indeed, women are the initiators who play important role in facilitating changes in family life. The UN Women Watch organization asserts that ” rural women play a key role in supporting their households and communities in achieving food and nutritional security, generating income, and improving rural livelihoods and overall wellbeing.
As educators, the role or contribution of women to society’s transition from pre-literate to the literate period is highly significant. Basic education is key to a nation’s ability to develop and achieve sustainable policies and programs. It is evident that education helps to improve agricultural productivity, enhances the status of girls and women, stabilizes population growth rates, enhances environmental protection and, increases the standard of living. It is the mother at home who most often urges children of both genders to attend and stay in school. The role of women is at the front end of the chain of improvement, leading to the family and the community’s long term capacity.
Although women are still lagging behind men worldwide, the historic and current role of women is indisputable. Michelle Bachelet, the Under-Secretary-General and Executive Director of UN Women notes that “when women are empowered and can claim their rights and have access to land, leadership, opportunities and choices, economic growth, food security are enhanced and developmental prospects are improved for current and future generations.
The role of women as volunteers in local and international organizations for development has global collective recognition. The global Volunteers Community Development work in host countries worldwide strengthens women’s and children’s capacity and supports their sustained health and development. Under the development and direction of local leaders, women volunteers help ensure academic accessibility, foster parental involvement, offer psycho-social support, provide nutrition and health education, fund girls’ scholarships, construct schools and educate children and women through programmed extension works.

6
The Core Values of Development are Self Esteem, Freedom and Sustenance.

1) FREEDOM
Simply refers to the ability to choose. For example, if Kenya has a plethora of alternatives from which to satisfy its wants and as well as Kenyans enjoying real choices according to their preferences then we can call that Freedom as a core value of development.
2) SELF ESTEEM
Simply means the feeling of worthiness and self respect. For example, a Nation that has gained independence from a Colonial Master will have some sort of higher self esteem as they may feel that they are not being used as a tool by others for their own ends.
3) SUSTENANCE
This refers to the ability to meet basic needs like clothing shelter and food. For example if I do not have food or have it in short supply, my participation in school as well as my cognitive ability will be badly affected and so will my results and this will affect my productivity and my development as well as that of the nation not to mention the vices that I might get involved in just to ‘survive’.

8
Economic Growth
Economic Development
Economic Growth is the positive change in the indicators of economy. Economic development is the quantitative and qualitative change in an economy.
Economic Growth refers to the increment in amount of goods and services produced by an economy. Economic development refers to the reduction and elimination of poverty, unemployment and inequality with the context of growing economy.
Economic growth means an increase in real national income / national output. Economic development means an improvement in the quality of life and living standards, e.g. measures of literacy, life-expectancy and health care.
It refers to an increase over time in a country’s real output of goods and services (GNP) or real output per capita income. Economic development includes process and policies by which a country improves the social, economic and political well-being of its people.
Economic growth focuses on production of goods and services. Economic development focuses on distribution of resources.
Economic growth relates a gradual increase in one of the components of GDP; consumption, government spending, investment or net exports. Economic development relates to growth of human capital indexes and decrease in inequality.

It is concerned with how people are affected.

Economic growth is single dimensional in nature as it only focuses on income of the people. Economic development is multi-dimensional in nature as it focuses on both income and improvement of living standards of the people.
Economic Growth is the precursor and prerequisite for economic development. It is the subset of economic development. Economic development comes after economic growth. It is a positive impact of economic growth.
Indicators of economic growth are:
GDP
GNI
Per capita income
Indicators of economic development are:
Human Development Index (HDI)
Human Poverty Index (HPI)
Gini Coefficient
Gender Development Index (GDI)
Balance of trade
Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI)

UCHEOMA DANIELL ACHIMDINDU
ECONOMINCS DEPARTMENT
2019/241763
Anwer 1:
Many economists considered economic growth as the development of the economy. They believed that development occurs when the Gross Domestic Product GDP of a country grows at 5% to 7% above and the increase is sustained for a long period. Also, there is a change in the structure of production and employment; the percentage of Agriculture’s contribution to the GDP decreases while that of industrialization increases at the expense of the former. Due to this belief, many developing countries in the 1960s and 70s experienced high increases in GDP while the standard of living remained unchanged or even declined.
Economists began to reconsider what development really was and what was supposed to be measured to determine the development of a country. Among these economists was Seers who belong to the structuralists’ school of thought. He gave factors to be considered to determine whether a country is developed by asking three pertinent questions in this manner: ‘what has been happening to poverty? What has been happening to unemployment? What has been happening to inequality?’. According to him, a country is said to experience development if all three problems have been alleviated significantly. However, if one or two or all the problems remain the same or grow worse, it is impossible to say that development has occurred.
Poverty according to the United Nations is defined in absolute and relative terms. Absolute poverty is a state made up of serious denial of basic human needs including food, shelter, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, education, and information. Absolute poverty to them does not only depend on income but also on access to life. Relative poverty was defined by the UN in terms of the minimum acceptable standard of living within a society in which a particular person lives. Seers argued that “the focus on national income as a target for achieving poverty reduction avoided the real problems of development”; that is, there were other factors that restricted people from escaping poverty- this is explained in Sen’s view of development judged by its impact on people’s freedom. He recommended “redefining how development was measured” in terms of poverty.
The United Nations also defined inequality as a state of not being equal, especially in status, rights, and opportunities. Again, Seers argued that no real development occurred when the benefits of technology and progress helped only a small number of people in the developed world who are already relatively rich.
The International Labor Organization defines unemployment as all persons of working age (15 years and above) who were not in employment but are engaged in seeking employment during a particular period and were currently available to take up employment given a job opportunity. To Dudley Seers, employment of available and willing labor is characterized by development. When there is a high rate of unemployment in a country, even when there is increasing GDP, it is not a developed nation.
Nations seeking to develop their economy consider the writing of Seers and make a conscious effort to reduce if not eliminate these problems limiting development. Developing and underdeveloped countries have a high percentage of people or families earning below the nation’s poverty line or poverty threshold which is the annual income below which a person or family is considered impoverished. The national poverty line is calculated independently for each country because each country’s economy is different. According to the World Bank, Nigeria’s poverty rate is 65.2% which contradicts the 40% touted by the Nigerian government. The World Bank report suggests that northern Nigeria is directly responsible for Nigeria’s infamous ranking as the global headquarters of poverty.
Answer 2:

Answer 3:
I agree with this statement.
According to Sen’s definition, development is enhanced when democracy is functional and effective. There is the protection of human rights, especially the freedom of the press and of speech. These rights equip the citizens to hold the government accountable for whatever policy or action is being taken. There occurs an increase in the likelihood of the government tending to the people’s needs more efficiently thereby promoting development. He claims that “no famine has ever taken place in the history of the world in a functioning democracy”. This is because democratic governments “have to win elections and face public criticism, and have a strong incentive to undertake measures to avert famines and other catastrophes”. This is an agreeable statement considering the fact that the whole idea behind democracy is for the government to act in service of the people who hold the power. However, this has not been the case for most developing countries that claim to be practicing a democratic system of government. In fact, there are people who believe that the freedom given to the people has caused political instability and even a decline in the development of the nation. One such person is Singapore’s Lee Kuan Yew who brought forth theories of Asian values used as a tool to encourage political repression. Sen criticizes these theories by disagreeing with the existence of Asian values in a continent with vastly disparate populations and traditions and containing 60 percent of the world’s population. Sen further proves his theory by explaining development in Asia improved with the growing democracy.
In the case of countries practicing a democratic system of government with a developing economy, the issue becomes how much freedom is given to the people and how much freedom are the people aware of. That is why Sen specifically stated that development will only occur in a state where development is efficient and where the people are aware of their basic human rights. Sen gave five types of freedom that initiate development. They are political freedom, economic facilities, social opportunities, transparency, and security. The state has a role in supporting freedoms by providing public education, health care, social safety nets, good macroeconomic policies, productivity, and protecting the environment.
With the sources of unfreedom(poverty, tyranny, poor economic activities, and others) comes capacity deprivation. This is a better measure of poverty than low income. With the elimination of these sources, individuals have the freedom to do whatever they want and whatever they know how to do best which not only benefits them but the entire economy. Imagine a family who would like to give their children a quality education but is restricted by their income. It becomes one less efficient labor to the economy. This is the reason Sen believes development to be the expansion of human freedom.

Answer 4:
With the emergence of the various waves of feminism, we see the importance of involving women in economic activities and how encouraging them has led to an improvement in the development of a nation’s economy. Not restricting them to just one sector (either the traditional or modern sector) and giving them the freedom of choice (with the emergence of choice feminism) will allow them to contribute efficiently to growth as well as development.
The role of women in the economy is just as important as that of the man and is similar – It involves ensuring economic stability, progress, and achievement of sustainable development in society. It is important for society to recognize the capabilities of women and understand the importance of engaging them. This has been the case for most developed countries that invest in women’s development and give attention to the factors that encourage them to thrive in their contributions to the economy. However, in developing countries like Nigeria, women are still being undermined and are given little to no attention while being relegated to the background usually limited to doing traditional chores or jobs with very little mental capacity. In fact, they are being denied basic necessities such as education and healthcare that would have enabled the to function properly in the economy. Overall men/boys and women/girls do not enjoy the same opportunities and do not have the same chances to either benefit from or contribute to the social and economic development of their countries. It is bad that the legitimate aspiration of women to play a more critical role in the economic development of their countries is often linked to the quest for civil and political rights.
Women’s empowerment is closely related to socio-economic development. In fact, it is seen as a determinant of development in society. It is however not enough if not supported by strong policies made by the government. Just as Amatya Sen has said, with freedom comes development. When a certain demographic of society is not given this freedom, there wouldn’t be as much development as there would have and the economy’s potential is not reached. This is why it is important to give these women the freedom to choose and also encourage them by making it easy to contribute with the provision of resources.
On Aug 20, 2019, Suryakala Kannan published CONTRIBUTION OF WOMEN IN ECONOMY PRODUCTION -THE BASIS OF ECONOMY where she stated that women have always contributed to society since the beginning of the human race. She further describes women’s work in various sectors of the modern – In the Agricultural, Industrial, and service sectors. With the contribution of their resources, there will be a noticeable improvement in the economy.

Answer 6:
There has been an evolution of the definition of development; from it being a measure of materialistic economic growth to a consideration of other factors which may affect human living. With the emergence of a multidimensional concept involving development, Denis Goulet suggested the three core values of development which are; sustenance, self-esteem, and freedom. According to him, these values should serve as a conceptual basis and practical guidelines for understanding the “inner” meaning of development. They represent common goals sought after by every member of society relating to the fundamental human needs that find their expression in almost all societies and cultures at all times.
Sustenance refers to the basic needs of a human being without which survival would not be possible. These needs include food, shelter, security, and good health. Shortage of any of these necessities implies a situation of severe underdevelopment of the economy. Development, therefore, must lead to the reduction of these shortages and fulfill the basic needs of the population.
Every individual is entitled to a sense of self-worth or self-respect. Although the nature of self-esteem may change with society or the economy, the basic idea remains the same. All people have the right to a life of dignity and honor. Respect, however, is often attached to wealth and the underdevelopment of an economy can be a burden on people’s self-esteem. Hence to promote self-worth, development must be spread across the whole economy and not just certain sections within it.
Freedom refers to not just freedom from servitude, but also from discrimination, oppressive beliefs, and practices. Equal opportunity and freedom in every aspect of the social, legal, cultural, and political situation are necessary for every individual. Everyone must be free to choose and have control over their own life and actions. Growth without freedom has been observed in many nations, which defeats the purpose of development.

Answer 8:
Economic growth has always been mistaken by the traditional economists to be development. They thought development meant increase in production with the use of GDP as a measuring index among many others. However, with new study and theories, the meaning of development has evolved to mean many different things involving the way humans live in a society. This has also created a distinction between the two terms: development and growth.
While growth can be simply defined as the measure of production in a country, development is more complex and multidimensional; there are many factors to be considered when defining it. It involves how people of the society live, diversification in the economy, employment and so on.
Development can only occur when there is economic growth which happens alone independent of development.
Economic growth is not a good determiner of a country’s performance as a country with high GDP can still struggle with the problems of unemployment, poverty, and inequality. A very good example is the case of the Nigerian Economy.
Nigeria has a Gross Domestic Production as at 2019 of $448.12B with a 12% increase from 2018. Because of its high GDP, in 2014, it became the largest economy in Africa taking over South Africa. However, it also has a very high rate of poverty at 65.2% and unemployment rate at nearly 33% which is worse than South Africa. There is also the issue of inequality, insecurity, scarcity and so on.
With the given figures we are a developing nation with an inflation rate of 11.4% getting to hyperinflation.

NAME: UGWUOKE KOSISOCHUWU PRECIOUS
REG:2019/243547

1:Before Dudley Seer propounded his theory of development, many economists believed that development is achieved when a country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) grows at 5% to 7% above and the increases are sustained over a long period of time. They believed that when such increases occurred, then that country has achieved development. To them, development was based mainly on material increase. Also, it was believed that economic development is achieved when there is a change in the structure of production and employment so that the share of agriculture in GDP and in employment declines, while that of manufacturing and services increases. These believe made development economists to focus more on industrialization at the expense of agriculture (Todaro & Smith, 2006). Based on the believe, many developing countries in the 1960s and 1970s experienced increased in their Gross Domestic Product but the general levels of living of the masses remained unchanged. That is, the increases in growth (GDP) do not have any direct effect on quality of life of the people.
These made many economists to reconsider what development really is and hence glamour for direct attack on widespread of poverty, increasing inequality in income distribution and rising unemployment. To them development should have a “human face”. That is, it should be something that should be seen in the lives of the people. Amongst these economists seeking for a direct approach on development was Dudley Seer, a British Economist who specialized in development economics. He came up with a concept that replaced the growth fetishism with a social development. According to Seer (1969), development is about the level of poverty, unemployment and inequality in a nation. To him, if these three variables have declined over a period of time, then development has occurred for the nation concerned. But if one or two of these variables have been growing worse, especially if all three have, it would be strange to call the result “development,” even if per capita income has soared Seers
2:Economic growth is the most powerful instrument for reducing poverty and improving the quality of life in developing countries. Both cross-country research and country case studies provide overwhelming evidence that rapid and sustained growth is critical to making faster progress towards the Millennium Development Goals – and not just the first goal of halving the global proportion of people living on less than $1 a day.
Growth can generate virtuous circles of prosperity and opportunity. Strong growth and employment opportunities improve incentives for parents to invest in their children’s education by sending them to school. This may lead to the emergence of a strong and growing group of entrepreneurs, which should generate pressure for improved governance. Strong economic growth therefore advances human development, which, in turn, promotes economic growth.
But under different conditions, similar rates of growth can have very different effects on poverty, the employment prospects of the poor and broader indicators of human development. The extent to which growth reduces poverty depends on the degree to which the poor participate in the growth process and share in its proceeds. Thus, both the pace and pattern of growth matter for reducing poverty.
A successful strategy of poverty reduction must have at its core measures to promote rapid and sustained economic growth. The challenge for policy is to combine growth- promoting policies with policies that allow the poor to participate fully in the opportunities unleashed and so contribute to that growth. This includes policies to make labour markets work better, remove gender inequalities and increase financial inclusion.
Asian countries are increasingly tackling this agenda of ‘inclusive growth’. India’s most recent development plan has two main objectives: raising economic growth and making growth more inclusive, policy mirrored elsewhere in South Asia and Africa.
Future growth will need to be based on an increasingly globalised world that offers new opportunities but also new challenges. New technologies offer not only ‘catch-up’ potential but also ‘leapfrogging’ possibilities. New science offers better prospects across both productive and service sectors.
Future growth will also need to be environmentally sustainable. Improved management of water and other natural resources is required, together with movement towards low carbon technologies by both developed and developing countries. With the proper institutions, growth and environmental sustainability may be seen as complements, not substitutes.
DFID will work for inclusive growth through a number of programmes and continues to spend heavily on health and education, which have a major impact on poor people’s ability to take part in growth opportunities.
More and better research on the drivers of growth will be needed to improve policy. But ultimately the biggest determinants of growth in a country will be its leadership,policies and institutions
3: According to Sen, development is enhanced by democracy and the protection of human rights. Such rights, especially freedom of the press, speech, assembly, and so forth increase the likelihood of honest, clean, good government.

He claims that “no famine has ever taken place in the history of the world in a functioning democracy”. This is because democratic governments “have to win elections and face public criticism, and have strong incentive to undertake measures to avert famines and other catastrophes”.

Development is the process of expanding human freedom. It is “the enhancement of freedoms that allow people to lead lives that they have reason to live”. Hence “development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom: poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systemic social deprivation, neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or overactivity of repressive states”.

Sen argues that there are five types of interrelated freedoms, namely, political freedom, economic facilities, social opportunities, transparency and security. The state has a role in supporting freedoms by providing public education, health care, social safety nets, good macroeconomic policies, productivity and protecting the environment.

Freedom implies not just to do something, but the capabilities to make it happen. What people can achieve (their capabilities) is influenced by “economic opportunities, political liberties, social powers, and the enabling condition of good health, basic education, and the encouragement and cultivation of initiatives”. Sen calculates that if women in Asia and North Africa were given the same health care and attention, the world would have 100 million more women.
4: Women are the set of human beings that belongs to the female gender. They play the role of mothers, caretakers in family affairs, farmers, educators, entrepreneurs, teachers, e.t.c. It is historic that women play significant roles in societal development and ensure the stability, progress, and long-term development of nations. Women also play the role of decision-makers in homes. Globally, women contribute immensely to agricultural development, comprising about 43% of the world’s agricultural labor force. In some countries, the number of women involved in the agricultural labor force increases to over 70%. Available records indicate that in Africa alone, 80% of agricultural production comes from small farmers, most of whom are rural women. It is noteworthy that agriculture is the bedrock of national development as the best approach to food security, poverty reduction, job creation, and economic stability.

At home, women, notably mothers, play the role in decision-making about family meal planning and diet. Women also initiate and preserve the nutritional and healthcare programs of children at home. In addition, women are not only caring for their children at home but are also the primary caretakers of both children and elders in every country of the world. International studies indicate that women lead in finding solutions to the problems occasioned by a change of political and economic organizations in countries, thereby helping the family adjust to new realities and challenges. Indeed, women are the initiators who play important role in facilitating changes in family life. The UN Women Watch organization asserts that ” rural women play a key role in supporting their households and communities in achieving food and nutritional security, generating income, and improving rural livelihoods and overall wellbeing.
5: Capabilities are the doings and beings that people can achieve if they so choose — their opportunity to do or be such things as being well-nourished, getting married, being educated, and travelling; functionings are capabilities that have been realized. Whether someone can convert a set of means – resources and public goods – into a functioning (i.e., whether she has a particular capability) crucially depends on certain personal, sociopolitical, and environmental conditions, which, in the capability literature, are called ‘conversion factors.’ Capabilities have also been referred to as real or substantive freedoms as they denote the freedoms that have been cleared of any potential obstacles, in contrast to mere formal rights and freedoms.

Within philosophy, the capability approach has been employed to the development of several conceptual and normative theories within, most prominently, development ethics, political philosophy, public health ethics, environmental ethics and climate justice, and philosophy of education
6: According to this approach, development is not just about increasing the availability of commodities (focus of the per-capita income approach) but expanding the capabilities of individuals to use these commodities and enhancing the freedom of choice of people. Higher income is important an element of one’s well being. But, well being of individuals also depends on their health, education, geographical and social environment, and political system. There are three core values of development: (i) sustenance, (ii) self- esteem, and (iii) freedom.
Sustenance: Sustenance is the ability to meet basic needs of people. All people have certain basic needs without which life would be impossible. These basic needs include food, shelter, health, and protection. People should have access to these basic needs.
Self-Esteem: Sense of worth and self-respect and feeling of not being marginalized are extremely important for individual’s well being. All peoples and societies seek some form of self-esteem (identity, dignity, respect, honor etc.). The nature and form of self- esteem may vary from on culture to another and from time to time. Self-esteem may be based on material values: higher income or wealth may be equated with higher worthiness. One may consider individuals worthy based on their intellect or public service.
Freedom from Servitude: Human freedom, the ability to choose, is essential for the well being of individuals. Freedom involves an expanded range of choices for societies: economic and political. It involves freedom from bondage, serfdom, and other exploitative economic, social, and political relationships.
7: Buying into “happiness materialism” — the belief that wealth is an indicator of a happy life — tends to be problematic because it takes “much time, energy and money away from other life domains that make an important and positive contribution to present life satisfaction,” such as family, work and health, the study authors wrote.

However, researchers believe focusing on “success materialism” — the idea that wealth signifies success — enhances people’s “economic motivation,” or their drive to work and improve their standard of living. Thinking about success through that lens could make individuals more satisfied with their present lives and hopeful about the future.

This simple mindset shift could make a difference in the way people view success and their lives, but of course there are other variables at play. For example, while this study didn’t cover how income specifically affects life satisfaction, researchers agree that it also impacts people’s happiness.
8:A:Economic growth It refers to the increase in the monetary growth of a nation in a particular period.while economic development It refers to the overall development of the quality of life in a nation, which includes economic growth.
Span of Concept
B:Economic growth It is a narrower concept than that of economic development.while economic development It is a broader concept than that of economic growth.
C:Scope
Economic growth It is a uni-dimensional approach that deals with the economic growth of a nation.while economic development It is a multi-dimensional approach that looks into the income as well as the quality of life of a nation.
D:Term
Economic growth is in Short-term process while economic development is in the Long-term process
E:Measurement
Economic growth and economic development both varies in Quantitative
F:Government Support
Economic growth It is an automatic process that may or may not require intervention from the government while economic development It requires intervention from the government as all the developmental policies are formed by the government

Name: Idajor John Ayuochieyi
Reg. No: 2019/248707
Department: Economics
SOLUTIONS
Answer to question one
The argument of professor Dudley Seers that development can only be if there is reduction in poverty, inequality and unemployment is indeed a fact even to a very large extent. There can be an economic growth without development if the increased income is not used to develop the economy. Let’s look at the meanings of the three key words: Poverty, inequality and unemployment.
Poverty: It is seen as a situation whereby someone has a very little money that is not enough to Carter for the basic needs of the person. In an economy where people lack money to provide for their basic needs, in such economy there is lack of development. In an economy where poverty is at its highest rate it therefore shows that some basic functions that are to be played most especially by the government are denied. For example, in our country Nigeria, the poverty headcount rate is instead projected to jump from 40.1 per cent in 2018/19 to 42.0 per cent in 2020 and 42.6 per cent in 2022, implying that the number of poor people was 89.0 million in 2020 and would be 95.1 million in 2022. Looking at this someone may be forced to ask, is there no working force in Nigeria? Is there economy not experiencing economic growth? and so many other questions. In the case of Nigeria, the truth remains that there is an economic growth but the reason for no development is due to bad government especially in this present government of ours. When the government fails to look into the basic needs of its citezens and provide ways in which poverty can be if not eradicated then be reduced to its nearest minimum. There are many things that can lead to poverty in an economy, things such as: conflnutriinadequate access to clean water and nutritious food, little or no access to livelihood, poor education, etc. If the government of a country like Nigeria looks down on the causes of poverty as mentioned above, there is no likelihood of reducing poverty.
For an economy to reduce poverty, it does not only have to experience economic growth only but has to employ the income gotten from GNI into those different sectors of the economy that tends to proliferate poverty. The government can emback on:
Education of the young ones: This is very Paramount for the country like Nigeria whose government now sees education as nothing but waste of money and resources, with the help of education, the teeming generation will be educated on how to carter for the basic needs of each one themselves not even relying on the government.
Provision of clean water: when there is a good source of water for the people there is also life because good water is even the first and the necessary aspect of feeding.
Ensure basic health care.
Empower a girl or woman.
Improve childhood nutrition.
Support environmental programs.
Reach children in conflict.
Prevent child marriage.
Inequality: It means the situation of not being equal, in particular in reference to the distribution of income among the population. There are so many things that leads to inequality in an economy. One is the distribution of resources in an economy. Take for instance in our country Nigeria, the main source of income in the country is income from crude oil, and the deposit of crude oil cannot be found in all the state in Nigeria, after the sales of crude oil, how can the income be equally distributed to all sectors in the economy? This is one of the trending problems with the government of Nigeria. If the income gotten from crude oil can be equally distributed and efficiently used, there is the likelihood of development. Unfortunately, in Nigeria, he who is in position to rule others would come up with the general saying “that God for us all and man to himself”. We see that most of the income generated in the southern of Nigeria are largely allocated to the northern part of Nigeria. The real owners of crude oil gets nothing. If the government can look into allocating these incomes generated to different sectors of the economy that are lacking behind, there will be development in such economy.
There are also other causes of inequality in an economy such as:
Gender inequality
Globalization
Differences in education, etc.
For an economy to reduce inequality, it must try to see how it can reallocate the different resources to places that do not have enough of those resources, it must do away with gender inequality especially that of women so that women can work and progress like others in the society.
Unemployment: It is a situation whereby there are given number of men and women who are ready and willing to work but finds no work. This is one of the alarming rates of the cries of Nigerian youths who have graduated and have no work to do. Today most Nigerians are leaving the country in search for work in other countries. In an economy where there no provision of employment for citizens, then there is lack of development. Why is is that in Nigeria a lot of graduate are found without jobs? Is there no work for them? What is the response of the government to this? These are some of the questions likely asked by many people. There are many factors that lead to unemployment such as:
Corruption,
neglect of agricultural and other natural resources,
poor quality education,
a lack of working skills,
overpopulation,
inflation,
and a decrease in economic value
In Nigeria, most of the educational institutions are very poor due to the lack of concern by the government towards education, even the tertiary institutions are unstable due to ASSU strike in regards to government refusal to respond to the needs of ASSU which will help the educational system. In such economy, development can hardly occur.
Corruption is the main cause of unemployment especially in Nigeria, a situation whereby those in authority think only of themselves and their families and no more the care for the needs of the society today, this is what is experience now in our present government.
Agricultural and other natural resources have been abandoned due to the discovery of crude oil. Before, the main source of income in Nigeria was agriculture, if the government can in a common sense, hold up to the aspect of agriculture joined together with crude oil, I think even the least among the poor in Nigeria would have little to complain about if all the income are efficiently used.
For the government to reduce unemployment in Nigeria, I think the following should be adhered to:
Fiscal Policy of Government. …
Central Bank and Nigeria Monetary Policy. …
Government Spending. …
Agric Sector Reform. …
Government Intervention in Micro Lending. …
Getting Professional Education. …
Finishing School. …
Changing University Curriculum
I can say that Professor Dudley seers is right with his argument about development, if the solutions to poverty, unemployment and inequality are adhered to, then there is said to be development in such economy especially in Nigeria.
Answer to question two
Here, we will look at development occurring in a multi dimensional way, of cause, development cannot occur in one way bit in different ways. We will look at the key factors: Development involving changes in output, development involving shift in the allocation of productive resources and development as a reduction of poverty, inequality and unemployment.
Development involving changes in the composition output: Change in output can be defined as is defined as the percentage change in output per one percent change in all the inputs. This leads to what is known as returns to scale, and the reasons for return to scale are as follows:
Division of labor and increased efficiency of variable factors.
Organized and efficient coordination between the factors.
Indivisibility of factors of projection
Changes in the composition of output refers to changes not only in the out of a firm but in different parts, sectors, and aspects of production on an economy. For example, let’s say we have different aspects that contribute to the GDP of the nation such as: agricultural sector, companies, business sectors, etc. In each of these sectors, like in agriculture: if there is a change from the use of local implement for cultivation to the use of mechanized tools in cultivation, then there will be increase in the hectares of land cultivated, also, if there is an increase in the use of deposits as manure to the use of fertilizers on farm land, there will be a change in the yield of crops cultivated. Thus, it applies to other sectors in the economy. If there is a positive (increasing) change the the composition or different parts through which an output is given to the economy then development has occurred.
Development involving shift in the allocation of productive resources: Here, we’ll look at productive resources, it is defined as the natural, human, and capital re- sources used to make goods and services. For more understanding let’s look at what scarcity is all about, Scarcity means that because resources are limited, you can’t have every- thing you want. For an effective development to take place in an economy, there is need for reallocation of those productive resources in an economy to places where there are scarce. For example, if the government of Nigeria decide to establish more universities in the northern part of Nigeria, there will be need for the reallocation of well trained lecturers from the southern part of Nigeria to the north in order for effective education to take place. If there is no reallocation of lecturers to such area, then those employed as lecturers there may not deliver effective lessons to students since in the south we have more learned people than those in the north. The reallocation of productive resources is very necessary for development, otherwise there will be scarcity in other parts of the economy.
Reduction of poverty, inequality and unemployment: As said earlier in question, development can only occur when there is reduction in poverty, inequality and unemployment. For instance, in our country Nigeria, most people are unemployed and the result of such brings terrorism, stealing, and many other vices in the country, if the government can provide solutions to unemployment, youths would have something doing.
Poverty is must be fought by the government and inequality. All these boils down to the fact that the government is bad and corrupt, in a good government there is provision of employment, and other basic needs, if all these are adhered to, then it gives the summary of the first two answers which shows that development is multi dimensional.
Answer to question three
The assertions of Amartya Sen are of cause to be agreed on, but before the agreement, let’s look at the key words of his proposition.
Unfreedom: This is seen as the lack of power or right to act, speak, or think as one wants. Or the state of being imprisoned or enslaved. Or the state of being subject to or affected by (something undesirable). This is one of the factors that cripples economic development. In an economy where the freedom of the citizens is not ensured, there seemed to be lack of economic development. Looking at Nigeria as a case study, the present government can be said to be made up of most of those factors affecting economic development. In Nigeria, the Hausa’s believed that, they are born to rule, that no other tribe or States outside the north should rule. That is why during the period of Goodluck Jonathan, he worn the election but there was ridging of result and Buhari said that if anyone wins the election outside him there will be war which made Goodluck to call for peace. This is one of the examples of unfreedom. Now, looking critically on the government of President Buhari and comparing with that of president Jonathan, you’ll see that Nigeria was better during the time of Goodluck, that is why there is the saying that Presidential Buhari came to chain us and not to change the government. Situations like this cannot profer for economic development, for economic development to be ensured, there must be removal of those sources of unfreedom that chains the people.
Tyranny: This is a government in which a single ruler has absolute power over the subject. In an economy where one person takes decision on behalf of others and controls the means of production and distribution of goods and services, there is the likelihood of non development. Nigeria is a country that bears the name of practicing democracy but actually practice tyranny, that is why instead of development, there is rather decrease even in economic growth.
Poor Economic opportunities: Poor Economic opportunity means when young people cannot access the education, training, guidance, and connections required to successfully achieve economic security and independence. This is also one of the factors crippling development in an economy. A state where the teeming generation cannot afford these basic economic opportunities, then the future generation is in jeopardythThis is also the case with Nigeria where the young ones cannot access these economic opportunities such as education, training, guidance and security. Every now and then, Nigeria has faced so many security challenges such as Boko Haran, unknown gun men, the trending one which is attack from Fulani herds men. This will trigger fall even in Nigeria’s GDP. Thus, it can be rightly said without bounds to words of professor Amartya Sen’s statement that development can only occur when all these factor are uprooted from the root giving ways to freedom, good economic opportunities, etc.
Systematic social deprivation/ neglect of public facilities/ intolerance: Systematic social deprivation refers to the limited access to society’s resources due to poverty, discrimination, or other disadvantages. The definition says it all, for any economy to experience development, there must be proper trashing of some social vices such as systematic social deprivation. As usual, our main case study will be Nigeria, discrimination is widely spread Nigeria not just in politics, but in different aspects and sectors in the country. It is only in Nigeria that people go to apply for job and those that will be first considered are those who are of close relations and friends and also those from the tribe/tribes of those who are in charge of employment not minding if those who are the so called friends and relations have the requirements and are capable and fit for the job to be proferred. Likewise in the government, position of authority is no more by voting but merited by those who have hands above, that is why the rich gets richer and the poor gets poorer in Nigeria. Therefore I fully agree with Amartya Sen that, all these factors must be eradicated in order that there will be economic development. Now, another opportunity is here for Nigerians to make the right choice on whom to rule them, if the citizens vote in the right leaders as we are looking forward to see, there will be economic growth and development, students will no more go home on strike again.
Adding to this factor are neglect of public facilities and intolerance that all contribution to the debilitation of economic development. Thus, my agreement with Amartya Sen is to a very large extent that the removal of such factors will pave way for economic development.
Answer to question four
There is a saying that “what a man can do a woman can do better”. The roles of women in national development counts in a board aspect. Some of the central roles of women in national development are as follows:
They played the role of mothers
As caretakers in family affairs
They played to role of farmers
Educators and teachers
Entrepreneurs
They played a role in politics and government
The role of mothers: This role is so overlooked upon by so many people as a thing of less worth. Without the exist of women whose takes pain in carrying children for nine months, give birth to them and train them up to become good citizens, good leaders to, them I think the whole population of mankind would have been wiped out by now. What then is the meaning of a mother? A mother is a human female who parents and gives birth to a child, and carter for the need of the child till adulthood. Reports have shown that children are closer to their mother’s than to their fathers. That is why most characters inculcated by a child is that of the mother. Due to the affection and care shown by mothers to children, the children feel the need of total dependence on their mothers. If women can play such role in the family, what is that superstitious believe that women cannot play a vital role in national development?
As caretakers in family affairs: Another important role of women i n national development is caretakers in family affairs. Women are known as the peace of the family, in most families, women play a vital role in taking care of the family affairs such as cooking, washing of clothes, keeping of the environment clean, solving disputes between children and many others. If you enter a house or compound in the morning and see that it is not well kept, the general conclusion would be that there is no woman in that arena.
They played the role of farmers: World widely, women contribute immensely to agricultural development which constitute about 43% of the agricultural workforce in the world. In most countries of the world, the number of women engaged in agriculture is over 70% on the increase, taking cognizance of Africa alone, the available records of agricultural production is 80%which comes from small farm production. It is said to agriculture is the bedrock for national food security, poverty reduction, job creation and economic stability.
Educators and teachers: As educators, the role or contribution of women to society’s transition from pre-literate to the literate period is highly significant. Basic education is key to a nation’s ability to develop and achieve sustainable policies and programs. It is evident that education helps to improve agricultural productivity, enhances the status of girls and women, stabilizes population growth rates, enhances environmental protection and, increases the standard of living. It is the mother at home who most often urges children of both genders to attend and stay in school.
They played a role in politics and government: Women are also known to immensely contribute to national development.The role of women in providing an improved and sustainable workforce is also significant and exciting. The women’s share of the global workforce is about 45.5%. Women’s formal and informal labor can transform a community from a relatively autonomous society to a participant in the national economy. It is obvious that despite the cultural, social, and political setbacks of women, small businesses controlled by women in rural communities are not only extending beyond family lifelines but can also form a networked economic foundation for future generations. The role of women in the urban and rural workforce has expanded greatly in recent times.
Answer to question five
Amartya Sen in his capability approach talked about things that helps an individual or people to know their worth in a societ. Some of the importance of this approach are as follows:
Being able to live long
Being well nourished
Being healthy
Being literate
Being well clothed
Being mobile
Being able to take part in the life of the community

The Sen capability approach is a moral framework. It proposes that social arrangements should be evaluated primarily according to the extent of freedom people have to promote as well as achieving functions they value. Amartya Sen’s capability theory approach is a theoretical framework that involves two core normative claims.

First, the assumption that freedom to achieve well-being is of primary moral importance. And second, that freedom to achieve well-being must be understood in terms of people with capabilities. In other words, their real opportunities to do and be what they value. The approach has been developed into a variety of more specific normative theories. Such as those of social justice or the narratives of development ethics.

It has also given rise to a new highly interdisciplinary literature in the social sciences resulting in new social statistics and indicators. And to a new policy paradigm used mainly in developing studies, the so-called “human development approach” or human well-being.

The capability approach claims that freedom to achieve well-being is a matter of what people can do and be. And therefore, the kind of life they can effectively lead. As Sen argues, people’s commodities or wealth or their mental reactions (utility) are an inappropriate angle because they provide limited or indirect information about how life is going. Sen illustrates his point with the example of a standard bicycle.

This has the characteristics of “transportation”, but whether it will actually provide transportation will depend on the characteristics of those trying to use it. It could be considered a generally useful tool for most people to extend their mobility. Even if that person by some quirk, finds the bicycle charming, we should be able to notice within our assessment system that it still lacks transportation. This mental reaction also does not show that the same person would not appreciate transportation if it were actually available to them.
Answer to question six
The three core values of development are necessary for each and every individual living in the the society. Those three core values are as follows:
Sustenance ( the ability to meet basic needs)
Self esteem ( to be a person)
Freedom from servitude ( to able to choose)
The above listed items are the three core values for development, now let’s look at each one after the other.
Sustenance ( the ability to meet basic needs): The word sustenance means the food and drink that people, animals and plants need to stay alive and healthy. Also, it means the process of making something to continue to exist. All people have certain basic needs without which life would be impossible. These life-sustaining basic human needs include food, shelter, health, and protection. When any of these is absent or in critically short supply, a condition of “absolute underdevelop￾ment” exists. A basic function of all economic activity, therefore, is to provide as many people as possible with the means of overcoming the helplessness and misery arising from a lack of food, shelter, health, and protection. To this extent, we may claim that economic development is a necessary condition for the improvement in the quality of life that is development. Without sustained and continuous economic progress at the individual as well as the societal level, the realization of the human potential would not be possible. One clearly has to “have enough in order to be more. A good example of sustenance is when an individual can fend for himself when he or she graduates out of the university. If an individual from economic department graduates and fortunately gets a job as lecturer in the university of Nigeria and is well paid, in a month he or she receives one hundred and fifty thousand. Then, the individual can provide for his basic needs and also there can be said to be development.
Self esteem ( to be a person): The word self esteem means confidence in one’s own worth or abilities; self-respect. A second universal component of the good life is self-esteem—a sense of worth and self respect, of not being used as a tool by others for their own ends. All peoples and societies seek some basic form of self-esteem, although they may call it authenticity, identity, dignity, respect, honor, or recognition. The nature and form of this self-esteem may vary from society to society and from culture to culture. However, with the proliferation of the “modernizing values” of developed nations, many societies in develop￾ing countries that have had a profound sense of their own worth suffer from serious cultural confusion when they come in contact with economically and technologically advanced societies. This is because national prosperity has be￾come an almost universal measure of worth. Due to the significance attached to material values in developed nations, worthiness and esteem are nowadays increasingly conferred only on countries that possess economic wealth and technological power—those that have “developed.”
Freedom from servitude ( to able to choose): The word servitude is the state of being a slave or completely subject to someone more powerful. A third and final universal value that we suggest should constitute the meaning of development is the concept of human freedom. Freedom here is to be understood in the sense of emancipation from alienating material conditions of life and from social servitude to nature, other people, misery, oppressive institutions, and dogmatic beliefs,especially that poverty is predestination. Freedom involves an expanded range of choices for societies and their members together with a minimization of external constraints in the pursuit of some social goal we call development. Amartya Sen writes of “development as freedom.” W. Arthur Lewis stressed the relationship between economic growth and freedom from servitude when he concluded that “the advantage of economic growth is not that wealth increases happiness, but that it increases the range of human choice.” Wealth can enable people to gain greater control over nature and the physical environment (e.g., through the production of food, clothing, and shelter) than they would have if they remained poor. It also gives them the freedom to choose greater leisure, to have more goods and services, or to deny the importance of these material wants and choose to live a life of spiritual contemplation. The concept of human freedom also encompasses various components of political freedom, including personal security, the rule of law, freedom of expression, political participation, and equality of opportunity. Although attempts to rank countries with freedom indexes have proved highly controversial, studies do reveal that some countries that have achieved high economic growth rates or high incomes, such as China, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, and Singapore, have not achieved as much on human freedom criteria.
Answer to question seven
The questions about getting happiness when there is an increase in income has been a thing of debate in time past up till now. Some argue that as income increases, so also does happiness is on the increase. Many held this view base on the fact that when one has money, he or she can solve many problems related to basic needs of man and even live a.comfortable life which is of cause very true. Take for instance the economic situation in Nigeria, no one would tell that if he or she receives an increased salary, sadness would develop him, but rather the reverse is the case. This is because in Nigeria, people are suffering, no money, the available money is only in the hands of a few. Now, our lecturers have not been paid for over eight month, if suddenly, they receive their complete salary with an increase in the salary, in truth, there will be joy and happiness.
On the other hand, many argued that, when is an increase in the income earned by people, there will not experience happiness. Take for instance, most of our Nigerian policians are caught on the wires of insecurity, fear, etc of affluence. Today, politicians are restless, they cannot go about freely because of fear of being attacked in order to embezzle from them, as such, they lack happiness and peace. They suffer from what is known as the bondage of affluence. For an ordinary man who has no money, some people still argued that there is freedom for such person and as such there is peace and happiness in the life of such person provided he has what can sustain him. If you check very well, even the holy scripture gave a clear point about this, at a point in the bible Jesus asked a rich man to give all he has to the poor and then come follow him, sad was he as he walked away. Also, st. Paul said that money is the root of all evil and as such gives no happiness.
Do we say there should be no increase in income again in order that weay be happy? Or do we still say that there should be abundant increase in income so that we can be happy? All this are complicating, according to a research carried out, One of the most well-known findings in the economic study of happiness is that, on average, happiness increases with income, but at a certain point diminishing returns set in. In other words, money can only buy a fixed level of happiness, after which extra income and wealth doesn’t make much difference. Emphasizing on this point, I’ll like to say that an increase in income is not bad an as such gives happiness to a certain point, but a situation whereby one has an elongated desire to own more than enough money only to himself leads to unhappiness which is the situation we are facing in Nigeria today, and with this act there can hardly be development in Nigeria. There is enough money in Nigeria to settle ASSU and to bring development in different sectors and aspects in Nigeria but the money is just in the hands of few greedy people. To summarize it all, when there is an increase in income there is happiness, but when there is an over increase in income indirectly acquired, the happiness turns to slavery, unfreedomness, and unhappiness.
Answer to question eight
Looking at the two terms: Economic growth and economic development, these will he us to make distinction and come out with a proposed outcome of the present situation in Nigeria.
Economic growth: This refers to the increment in the amount of goods and services produced by an economy. This means an increase in the real nationa inome/ national ouput in an economy, as such, economic growth is a positive change in the indicators of the economy, this makes it single dimensional in nature because it focuses only on the income of the people. Other distinguishing features of economic growth are as follows:
Economic Growth is the precursor and prerequisite for economic development.
Indicators of economic growth are GDP, GNI and per capita income.
Economic growth relates a gradual increase in one of the components of GDP; consumption, government spending, investment or net exports.
It is also considered as a traditional measure of development which indicates the quantitative rise of economy.
Economic growth only looks at the quantitative aspect. It brings quantitative changes in the economy.
Economic growth is concerned with increase in economy’s output.
It focuses on production of goods and services.
Economic growth is more relevant metric for assessing progress in developed countries.
Economic growth is relatively narrow concept as compared to economic development.
It is for short term/short period.
It is a material/physical concept.
Economic growth is measured in certain time frame/period.
The Industrial Revolution is an historically significant example of enhancements of all 4 variables for production, all these components being what contributes to economic growth. Automated assembly in factories shifted workers into more skilled and specialized roles, further enhancing technology. Skilled labor and enhanced technology in turn increased the capital goods available, resulting in greater production, and ended periodic famines, leading to increased populations.
Economic development: Economic Development is programs, policies or activities that seek to improve the economic well-being and quality of life for a community. What “economic development” means to you will depend on the community you live in. Each community has its own opportunities, challenges, and priorities. As said earlier in economic growth, before economic development can occur, there must be economic growth. Some of the distinguishing features of economic development are as follows:
Economic development is the quantitative and qualitative change in an economy.
Economic development refers to the reduction and elimination of poverty, unemployment and inequality with the context of growing economy.
Economic development means an improvement in the quality of life and living standards, e.g. measures of literacy, life-expectancy and health care.
Economic development includes process and policies by which a country improves the social, economic and political well-being of its people.
Economic development is multi-dimensional in nature as it focuses on both income and improvement of living standards of the people.
Economic development is concerned with the happiness of public life.
Economic development comes after economic growth. It is a positive impact of economic growth.
Economic development also refers to:
provision of sufficient and effective physical and social infrastructures
equal access to resources
participation of all in economic activities
equitable distribution of dividends of economy.
Economic development= Economic growth + standard of living
It refers to increase in productivity.
Indicators of economic development are:
Human Development Index (HDI)
Human Poverty Index (HPI)
Gini Coefficient
Gender Development Index (GDI)
Balance of trade
Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI)
Economic development is the ends of development.
Achieving economic development is linked with end of poverty and inequality.
It is more abstract concept.
Economic development focuses on distribution of resources.
Following the pandemic induced recession in 2020, Nigeria’s economic growth recovered but macroeconomic stability weakened. Amidst global commodity shocks, a depreciating currency, trade restrictions, and monetization of the deficit, inflation is surging and pushing millions of Nigerians into poverty. Since 2021, Nigeria is also unable to benefit from the surging global oil prices, as oil production has fallen to historic lows and petrol subsidy continues to consume a larger share of the gross oil revenues.
In 2018, 40% of Nigerians (83 million people) lived below the poverty line, while another 25% (53 million) were vulnerable. With Nigeria’s population growth continuing to outpace poverty reduction, the number of Nigerians living in extreme poverty is set to rise by 7.7 million between 2019 and 2024.
While the economy is projected to grow at an average of 3.2% in 2022-2024, the growth outlook is subject to downside risks including further declines in oil production and heightened insecurity. Meanwhile, continued scarcity of foreign exchange and tighter liquidity could affect the economic activity in the non-oil sector and undermine the overall macroeconomic stability. The uncertainty is also expected to be accompanied by high inflation and continued fiscal and debt pressures.
Development Challenges
While Nigeria has made some progress in socio-economic terms in recent years, its human capital development ranked 150 of 157 countries in the World Bank’s 2020 Human Capital Index. The country continues to face massive developmental challenges, including the need to reduce the dependency on oil and diversify the economy, address insufficient infrastructure, build strong and effective institutions, as well as address governance issues and public financial management systems.
Inequality, in terms of income and opportunities, remains high and has adversely affected poverty reduction. The lack of job opportunities is at the core of the high poverty levels, regional inequality, and social and political unrest. High inflation has also taken a toll on household’s welfare and high prices in 2020-2022 are likely to have pushed an additional 8 million Nigerians into poverty.
Presently, Nigeria is facing economic hardship that even economic growth is hardly achieved, the problem emanates from the bad government we have, workers are not being paid, and the is high rate of unemployment in the country. We can.rightly say that, Nigeria at the present has not attended economic development, and even the economic growth that paves way for economic development is at risk. The main source of the country’s income ( crude oil) is falling out of value almost on daily basis due to the mismanagement by the government. We look forward to seeing another government in 2023 which will do away with this bad government and towards both the economic growth and development of the country.

Ngene Francisca onyeka
2019/249518
Economics
munaglint@gmail.com
1. The development could be seen as involving the provision of basic needs of the people, which is the target population as a subject rather than an object. It lays more emphasis on human potentialities, creativity, energy and the involvement of people and government with individuals, and group of communities leading to increase capacity to control or make decisions on issues and problems that affect the less developed countries.
As discussed by Dudley Seers [7], the purpose of development is to reduce poverty, inequality, and unemployment. To Seers, development involves reducing deprivation or broadening choice. It represents a multidimensional view of poverty that includes, hunger, illiteracy, illness and poor health, powerlessness, voicelessness, insecurity, humiliation.

2.Here, we will look at development occurring in a multi dimensional way, of cause, development cannot occur in one way bit in different ways. We will look at the key factors: Development involving changes in output, development involving shift in the allocation of productive resources and development as a reduction of poverty, inequality and unemployment.
Development involving changes in the composition output: Change in output can be defined as is defined as the percentage change in output per one percent change in all the inputs. This leads to what is known as returns to scale, and the reasons for return to scale are as follows:
Division of labor and increased efficiency of variable factors.
Organized and efficient coordination between the factors.
Indivisibility of factors of projection
Changes in the composition of output refers to changes not only in the out of a firm but in different parts, sectors, and aspects of production on an economy. For example, let’s say we have different aspects that contribute to the GDP of the nation such as: agricultural sector, companies, business sectors, etc. In each of these sectors, like in agriculture: if there is a change from the use of local implement for cultivation to the use of mechanized tools in cultivation, then there will be increase in the hectares of land cultivated, also, if there is an increase in the use of deposits as manure to the use of fertilizers on farm land, there will be a change in the yield of crops cultivated. Thus, it applies to other sectors in the economy. If there is a positive (increasing) change the the composition or different parts through which an output is given to the economy then development has occurred.
Development involving shift in the allocation of productive resources: Here, we’ll look at productive resources, it is defined as the natural, human, and capital re- sources used to make goods and services. For more understanding let’s look at what scarcity is all about, Scarcity means that because resources are limited, you can’t have every- thing you want. For an effective development to take place in an economy, there is need for reallocation of those productive resources in an economy to places where there are scarce. For example, if the government of Nigeria decide to establish more universities in the northern part of Nigeria, there will be need for the reallocation of well trained lecturers from the southern part of Nigeria to the north in order for effective education to take place. If there is no reallocation of lecturers to such area, then those employed as lecturers there may not deliver effective lessons to students since in the south we have more learned people than those in the north. The reallocation of productive resources is very necessary for development, otherwise there will be scarcity in other parts of the economy.
Reduction of poverty, inequality and unemployment: As said earlier in question, development can only occur when there is reduction in poverty, inequality and unemployment. For instance, in our country Nigeria, most people are unemployed and the result of such brings terrorism, stealing, and many other vices in the country, if the government can provide solutions to unemployment, youths would have something doing.
Poverty is must be fought by the government and inequality. All these boils down to the fact that the government is bad and corrupt, in a good government there is provision of employment, and other basic needs, if all these are adhered to, then it gives the summary of the first two answers which shows that development is multi dimensional.
3.As countries develop, their economies grow and living standards rise. This reduces the rate of poverty and allows more people to provide for themselves and their families and to live in dignity. The more a country develops the more jobs are created. This gives more people access to quality, stable work and to be able to provide for themselves and their families. Better economic opportunities have been shown to reduce violence and crime, as well as reduce the likelihood of conflict. Better jobs are also related to improved quality of life for people. As well as creating better jobs, development is important for a country because it improves business and trade. As countries develop more international companies move in and trade with other countries grows. This further improves the countries economy and also further increases the range of good jobs on offer.
Everybody wants to be able to meet their full potential. The increase in economic opportunities that development brings to a country shows how vital it can be.  Every child has the right to access quality education. Poorer countries often fail to meet the education needs of their young people. Increased development would improve the education systems of many poorer nations. A more educated population also improves the economic position of a country as people are able to move into more highly skilled jobs and create more innovative businesses. Better infrastructure helps a country immensely. Improving roads, railways, airports, communications and utilities makes a country more efficient. It allows people to move and send information more easily, as well as transport goods and provide services more widely. Better infrastructure improves a countries economy, which in-turn allows countries to spend more on better infrastructure. People in developed countries are more likely to live longer and happier lives. They are also generally more economically productive, hold better jobs, live in better quality housing and have access to better education and healthcare. All these factors contribute to a better standard of living for people in developed countries.

4.Women are the set of human beings that belongs to the female gender. They play the role of mothers, caretakers in family affairs, farmers, educators, entrepreneurs, teachers, e.t.c. It is historic that women play significant roles in societal development and ensure the stability, progress, and long-term development of nations. Women also play the role of decision-makers in homes. Globally, women contribute immensely to agricultural development, comprising about 43% of the world’s agricultural labor force. In some countries, the number of women involved in the agricultural labor force increases to over 70%. Available records indicate that in Africa alone, 80% of agricultural production comes from small farmers, most of whom are rural women. It is noteworthy that agriculture is the bedrock of national development as the best approach to food security, poverty reduction, job creation, and economic stability.
At home, women, notably mothers, play the role in decision-making about family meal planning and diet. Women also initiate and preserve the nutritional and healthcare programs of children at home. In addition, women are not only caring for their children at home but are also the primary caretakers of both children and elders in every country of the world. International studies indicate that women lead in finding solutions to the problems occasioned by a change of political and economic organizations in countries, thereby helping the family adjust to new realities and challenges. Indeed, women are the initiators who play important role in facilitating changes in family life. The UN Women Watch organization asserts that ” rural women play a key role in supporting their households and communities in achieving food and nutritional security, generating income, and improving rural livelihoods and overall wellbeing.
As educators, the role or contribution of women to society’s transition from pre-literate to the literate period is highly significant. Basic education is key to a nation’s ability to develop and achieve sustainable policies and programs. It is evident that education helps to improve agricultural productivity, enhances the status of girls and women, stabilizes population growth rates, enhances environmental protection and, increases the standard of living. It is the mother at home who most often urges children of both genders to attend and stay in school. The role of women is at the front end of the chain of improvement, leading to the family and the community’s long term capacity. The role of women in providing an improved and sustainable workforce is also significant and exciting. The women’s share of the global workforce is about 45.5%. Women’s formal and informal labor can transform a community from a relatively autonomous society to a participant in the national economy. It is obvious that despite the cultural, social, and political setbacks of women, small businesses controlled by women in rural communities are not only extending beyond family lifelines but can also form a networked economic foundation for future generations. The role of women in the urban and rural workforce has expanded greatly in recent times.
5. The capability approach is a theoretical framework that entails two normative claims: first, the claim that the freedom to achieve well-being is of primary moral importance and, second, that well-being should be understood in terms of people’s capabilities and functionings. Capabilities are the doings and beings that people can achieve if they so choose — their opportunity to do or be such things as being well-nourished, getting married, being educated, and travelling; functionings are capabilities that have been realized. Whether someone can convert a set of means – resources and public goods – into a functioning (i.e., whether she has a particular capability) crucially depends on certain personal, sociopolitical, and environmental conditions, which, in the capability literature, are called ‘conversion factors.’ Capabilities have also been referred to as real or substantive freedoms as they denote the freedoms that have been cleared of any potential obstacles, in contrast to mere formal rights and freedoms.

6.According to Prof. Goulet, at least three basic components as core values should serve as a conceptual basis and practical guidelines for understanding the “inner” meaning of development. These core values – sustenance, self-esteem, and freedom – represent common goals sought by all individuals and societies’? They relate to fundamental human needs that find their expression in almost all societies and cultures at all times.
Sustenance:
The life-sustaining basic human needs include food, shelter, health and protection. When any one of these is absent or in critically short supply, a condition of absolute “underdevelopment” exists.
Self-esteem:
A second universal component of good life is self- esteem- a sense of worth and self-respect- of not being used as a tool by others for their own ends. Due to the significance attached to material values in developed nations, worthiness and esteem are now-a-days increasingly conferred only on countries that possess economic wealth and technological power- those that have developed. Now-a-days the Third World seeks development in order to gain the esteem which is denied to societies living in a state of disgraceful “underdevelopment.” … Development is legitimized as a goal because it is an important, perhaps even an indispensable, way of gaining esteem.6
Freedom from Servitude:
Arthur Lewis stressed the relationship between economic growth and freedom from servitude when he concluded that “the advantage of economic growth is not that wealth increases happiness, but that it increases the range of human choice.” Wealth can enable a person to gain greater control over nature and his physical environment than they would have if they remained poor.
It also gives them the freedom to choose greater leisure. The concept of human freedom should encompass various components of political freedom, freedom of expression, political participation and equality of opportunity.
7. More income bring more happiness because;
* Money reduces intense stress: There was no significant difference in how often the participants experienced distressing events—no matter their income, they recorded a similar number of daily frustrations. But those with higher incomes experienced less negative intensity from those events.
* More money brings greater control: Those with higher incomes felt they had more control over negative events and that control reduced their stress. People with ample incomes felt more agency to deal with whatever hassles may arise.
* Higher incomes lead to higher life satisfaction: People with higher incomes were generally more satisfied with their lives.

Money is important to happiness. Ask anyone who doesn’t have it. Having a higher income, for example, can give us access to homes in safer neighborhoods, better health care and nutrition, fulfilling work, and more leisure time.
8. ECONOMIC GROWTH
* Economic Growth is the positive change in the indicators of economy.
* Economic Growth refers to the increment in amount of goods and services produced by an economy.
* Economic growth means an increase in real national income / national output.
* It refers to an increase over time in a country’s real output of goods and services (GNP) or real output per capita income.
* Economic growth is single dimensional in nature as it only focuses on income of the people.
* Earlier, economic growth was only measured in terms of Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
* At present, it is measured in terms of GDP, Gross National Income (GNI) and Per Capita Income.
* Economic Growth is the precursor and prerequisite for economic development.
* Indicators of economic growth are GDP, GNI and per capita income.
* Economic growth relates a gradual increase in one of the components of GDP; consumption, government spending, investment or net exports.
* It is also considered as a traditional measure of development which indicates the quantitative rise of economy.
* ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
*
* Economic development is the quantitative and qualitative change in an economy.
* Economic development refers to the reduction and elimination of poverty, unemployment and inequality with the context of growing economy.
* Economic development means an improvement in the quality of life and living standards, e.g. measures of literacy, life-expectancy and health care.
* Economic development includes process and policies by which a country improves the social, economic and political well-being of its people.
* Economic development is multi-dimensional in nature as it focuses on both income and improvement of living standards of the people.
* Economic development is concerned with the happiness of public life.
* Economic development comes after economic growth. It is a positive impact of economic growth.
* Economic development also refers to:
* provision of sufficient and effective physical and social infrastructures
* equal access to resources
* participation of all in economic activities
* equitable distribution of dividends of economy.
* Economic development= Economic growth + standard of living
* It refers to increase in productivity.
* Indicators of economic development are:
* Human Development Index (HDI)
* Human Poverty Index (HPI)
* Gini Coefficient
* Gender Development Index (GDI)
* Balance of trade
* Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI)
* Economic development is the ends of development.
* Achieving economic development is linked with end of poverty and inequality.
* It is more abstract concept.
* Economic development focuses on distribution of resources.
*
* Nigeria’s economy grew by 3.6% in 2021 from a 1.8% contraction in 2020, underpinned on the supply side by 4.4% expansion in the non-oil sector against 8.3% contraction in the oil sector; non-oil growth was driven by agriculture (2.1%) and services (5.6%). On the demand side, public and private consumption were contributors to GDP growth. Per capita income grew by 1.0% in 2021. The fiscal deficit narrowed to 4.8% of GDP in 2021 from 5.4% in 2020, due to a modest uptick in revenues, and was financed by borrowing. Public debt stood at $95.8 billion in 2021, or about 22.5% of GDP.
* Annual average inflation stood at 17.0% in 2021 against 13.2% the previous year and above the central bank’s 6–9% target. Inflation was fueled by food price rises at the start of the year and exchange rate pass-through. The central bank kept the policy rate unchanged at 11.5% in 2021 to support economic recovery. The current account deficit narrowed to 2.9% of GDP in 2021 from 4% the preceding year, supported by recovery in oil receipts. Improved oil exports and disbursement of the SDR allocation of $3.4 billion (0.8% of GDP), pending decision on its use, helped to boost gross reserves to $40.1 billion in 2021. The ratio of NPLs to gross loans was 4.9% in December 2021 (regulatory requirement 5%), while the capital-adequacy ratio was 14.5% (regulatory benchmark 10%). Poverty and unemployment remained high, broadly unchanged from 40% and 33.3%, respectively, in 2020.

ANSWER
1. Development is a multi-dimensional process involving major changes in social structure, popular attitudes and national institutions as well as the acceleration of economic growth, the reduction of inequality, and the eradication of poverty. Growth is not the same as development. The process of development is far more extensive. Development is therefore defined as the whole process of desirable change in addition to economic growth must be present.
2. Economic development came to be redefined, in the 1970s, in terms of the reduction or elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment within the context of a growing economy. If all three of these have declined from high levels, then beyond doubt this has been a period of development of the country concerned. If one or two of these central problem have been growing worse, especially if all three have, then it would be strange to call the result development even if per capita income doubled. Development is a human problem on how to ensure a progressively rising standard of living. Recently, the concept of economic development does not only involve reduction in poverty, unemployment and inequality but has been widened to include improvement in quality of life with cleaner environment, good health care and nutrition, better education and equality of opportunities (employment).
3. Yes. For a country to develop there must be removal of sources of unfreedom, poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systematic social depreciation, neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or over activity of repressive state.
4. Women plays a vital role in the society. They play the role of mothers, caretakers in family affairs, farmers, educators, entrepreneurs, teachers etc. Women play a significant role in societal development and ensure the stability, progress and long-term development of nations. Women contributes to agricultural development. They lead in finding solution to the problems occassioned by change of political and economic organizations in countries. The role of women is at the front end of the chain of improvement, leading to the family and the community’s long term capacity.
5. Some important “beings” and “doings” in capability of function are:
A. Being able to live long: A lot of things kill people before their time. People need to stay safe, be conscious and and stay away from trouble. Do what makes you happy and live a healthy life.
B. Being healthy: A healthy man is a wealthy man. Always take good care of your health; eat balanced diet, do exercise and go for regular chech up. C. Being well-nourished
D. Being literate: Being versatile. Educate yourself by reading good books, when you read you tend to learn more and pick the good ones and practice.
E. Being well-clothed: The way you dress is the way you will be addressed. We should dress properly when in public places. Being well-clothed is one dressing in a way that he/she will be recognized in terms of the occupation that person does, that is, a doctor cannot wear a mechanic coverall and boot to work in a hospital.
F. Being mobile: We talk about freedom of movement.
G. Being able to take part in the life of the community: One should not show apathy in his community development. If their is need for contribution and support one should partake to the communitys development.
6. The core values of development are:
i. Sustenance: This is the ability to meet up with the provisions of basic needs of food, shelter, clothing and security for the improvement in the quality of life.
ii. Self-esteem: This is the feeling of being a person, worthiness, self-respect, independence and not being used by others. This may differ among countries, societies and culture. The importance of the natural feeling of worthiness, self esteem is measured by economic wealth and technological power. Self-esteem may be based on material values: higher income or wealth may be equates with higher worthiness. One may consider individual worthy based on their intellect or public service.
iii. Freedom from servitude: This is the freedom of choice and the elimination of all forms of dogmatic beliefs, oppressive institutions and the removal as much as possible all external constraints in the pursuit of developmental goals, gaining control over issues. It is freedom from three evils of want, ignorance and squalor. Human freedom; the ability to choose is essential for the well being of individuals. Freedom involves an expanded range of choice for societies: economic and political. It involves freedom f bondage, serfdom and other expliotative economic, social and political relationship.
7.There is not a perfect correlation between happiness and income: people could be poor but happy, and be rich and unhappy. Oncw per capita income increases from 1000 to 5000 naira the percentage of people who say they are happy tends to increase. I agree with this assertion because their is nobody that does not want happiness and money. People tened to be happy when they have money especially the poor ones and the rich will also be happy seeing their money increase. People will be happy if they have money because it will solve some of their problems while those that have money will not be happy because the solution to their problem is beyond monetary value. When one has the passion to learn a skill and not being able to afford for the training that person won’t be happy.
8. a. Economic growth refers to increase in the monetary or output growth of a nation in a particular period. While, economic development refers to the overall development of the quality of life in a nation which includes economic growth.
b. Economic growth is a uni-dimensional approach which deals with the increase in income or output of the nation, while economic development is a multi-dimensional approach that looks into the income and as well as the quantity of life of the nation.
c. Economic growth is a narrow concept than economic development and GDP is used to measure economic growth. While, economic development is a broader concept than economic development, it involves steady decline in agricultural shares in GNP and continuous increase in shares of industries.
d. Economic growth is about income. GDP, GNP, GNI are used to measure economic growth while economic development is about outcomes. Standard of living, industrial development and human development indicator are use in measuring economic development
e. Economic growth is a short term process while economic development is a long term process.
f. Economic growth is a quantitative sustained increase in the country’s per capita income while, economic development is a qualitative increase in the economic, social political and general welfare of the people. However, for development to take place economic growth is a necessary condition.
Nigeria is underdeveloped country (backward country) because it is characterized by mass absolute poverty, low per capita income and GDP, under-developed natural resources, high rate of unemployment, high dependency on imported goods, high population (high birth rate), large rural population and rapid urban migration, lower level of human capital development (health, education and skills).

Name: Okeke Michael Obinna
Department: Combined Social Science(Eco/pol)
Reg no: 2019/250019

1. It is said that Development is more complicated than that of Growth. Meaning it cannot just be achieved by raising productivity level or output level but by also involving changes in output composition shift in the allocation of productive materials and also by the reduction of inequalities,Unemployment and poverty.

2: Development is said to be more than raising productivity level but further involves total reduction or poverty and unemployment because it’s said the development is not possible without growth but growth is possible without development, meaning that growth and employment must be achieved first in order to achieve development.

3:Yes, I agree. According to Amartya sen, development must be judged by its impact on people, not only by changes in their income but more generally in terms of their choices, capabilities and freedoms. This means we should be concerned about the distribution of these improvements, not just the simple average for a society. Amartya sen came in terms with the fact that development definitely requires the sources of unfreedom and Poverty. Development is set to be achieved with a well built systematic economy which has no room for tyranny and social depreviation.

4:It is said that the biggest achievement of National development is the empowerment of women in the activities of the economy. Women in developed countries have been handed the positions and authorities to take certain decisions that affect the economy. They play the role of mothers, caretakers in family affairs, farmers, educators, entrepreneurs, teachers, e.t.c. It is historic that women play significant roles in societal development and ensure the stability, progress, and long-term development of nations. Women also play the role of decision-makers in homes.

5:The ability to live long to achieve certain goals, The ability to being well nourished and healthy,The ability to read and write and understand certain aspects of life also being mobile.

6: Sustenance: The ability to afford the basic necessities of life with bothering anyone.it’s just the ability to fend for one’s self.
Self esteem: The ability to value one’s self and to have to level of pride in one’s self.
Freedom from servitude: Also known as freedom of choice. The ability to have various options to pick from in order to suit one’s desire.

7:Happiness could be said to increase as the income increases but it isn’t said to be agreed by all scholars who states that there are some factors affecting happiness i.e Health, personal freedom, personal values, community and friends e.t.c

8:Economic Growth refers to the increase in monetary income or output growth of a state in a particular period of time probably a year or two.
Economic development refers to the overall performance of the quality of life in nation which also includes economic growth.
Nigeria as a country is said to be undergoing development and could be referred to as an underdeveloped country in terms of development and as of growth we are still growing.

Name:Amankwe victor ubachukwu
Reg no: 2019/242928
Department:Library and information science
1. The development could be seen as involving the provision of basic needs of the people, which is the target population as a subject rather than an object. It lays more emphasis on human potentialities, creativity, energy and the involvement of people and government with individuals, and group of communities leading to increase capacity to control or make decisions on issues and problems that affect the less developed countries.

As discussed by Dudley Seers, the purpose of development is to reduce poverty, inequality, and unemployment. To Seers, development involves reducing deprivation or broadening choice. It represents a multidimensional view of poverty that includes, hunger, illiteracy, illness and poor health, powerlessness, voicelessness, insecurity, humiliation and lack of access to basic infrastructures as discussed by Narayan et al.

2. From the time of Malthus onwards, economists, demographers and other social scientists have been debating whether and how high fertility and rapid population growth affect economic outcomes and vice versa. There are at least four basic forms of the debate.

Does a large number of children diminish a family’s present well being and future prospects?

Does rapid population growth adversely affect the overall performance of the economy and its ability to achieve and sustain general well being?

Does low income, or poverty, contribute to high fertility?

Is rapid population growth a symptom, rather than a cause, of low national output and poor economic performance?

In other words, the debates occur at both the macro- and the micro-levels and are about the direction of causality.

Despite these debates, a broad consensus has developed over time that as incomes rise, fertility tends to fall. There is little debate about the causal relationship between rising prosperity and declining fertility. Generally speaking, there has been a uniformly high correlation between national income growth and falling birth rates, and between family incomes and fertility. Economists and demographers for the most part agree that important ingredients of improved living standards, such as urbanization, industrialization and rising opportunities for non-agrarian employment, improved educational levels, and better health all lead to changed parental perceptions of the costs and benefits of children, leading in turn to lower fertility. In other words, there is no longer much debate about whether or not improved economic conditions, whether at the family level or at the societal level, lead to lower fertility. There are, of course, important differences between countries, and even within countries, regarding the timing and the pace of these changes, but that there is a causal relationship running from improved living standards to lower fertility is no longer in much dispute (National Research Council 1986).

Where debate remains active and at times quite contentious has to do with whether causality runs the other way—i.e. does reduced fertility improve the economic prospects of families and societies? Here there is anything but consensus, although, as I will argue in this paper, there appears to be a slowly growing convergence of views in favour of an affirmative answer to this question. This paper, in other words, addresses the question of whether reduced fertility, and more particularly public policies designed to reduce fertility, can lead to higher incomes and improved living standards.

A good deal of research, of course, has been conducted on this question. The paper attempts to summarize the present state of such research and the conclusions that emerge from it today. My purpose is to try to identify what policymakers can conclude from the present state of research and then to speculate on what might be accomplished between now and 2050 if policymakers were to pursue what I take to be the course of action suggested by the research findings

3. Development means freedom, according to Amartya Sen, perhaps the greatest development thinker of our times.

Over the centuries, there have been very many theories of development. According to 1998 Nobel prize winner, Amartya Sen, freedom is both the primary objective of development, and the principal means of development. The human being is an engine of change.

Sen is both the first Indian and the first Asian to win the Nobel prize for economics. In winning the Nobel prize, Sen was praised by the Swedish Royal Academy of Sciences “for his contributions to welfare economics” and for restoring “an ethical dimension” to the discussion of vital economic problems.

According to Sen, development is enhanced by democracy and the protection of human rights. Such rights, especially freedom of the press, speech, assembly, and so forth increase the likelihood of honest, clean, good government.

He claims that “no famine has ever taken place in the history of the world in a functioning democracy”. This is because democratic governments “have to win elections and face public criticism, and have strong incentive to undertake measures to avert famines and other catastrophes”.

Development is the process of expanding human freedom. It is “the enhancement of freedoms that allow people to lead lives that they have reason to live”. Hence “development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom: poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systemic social deprivation, neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or overactivity of repressive states”.

Sen argues that there are five types of interrelated freedoms, namely, political freedom, economic facilities, social opportunities, transparency and security. The state has a role in supporting freedoms by providing public education, health care, social safety nets, good macroeconomic policies, productivity and protecting the environment.

4. Women are the set of human beings that belongs to the female gender. They play the role of mothers, caretakers in family affairs, farmers, educators, entrepreneurs, teachers, e.t.c. It is historic that women play significant roles in societal development and ensure the stability, progress, and long-term development of nations. Women also play the role of decision-makers in homes. Globally, women contribute immensely to agricultural development, comprising about 43% of the world’s agricultural labor force. In some countries, the number of women involved in the agricultural labor force increases to over 70%. Available records indicate that in Africa alone, 80% of agricultural production comes from small farmers, most of whom are rural women. It is noteworthy that agriculture is the bedrock of national development as the best approach to food security, poverty reduction, job creation, and economic stability.

At home, women, notably mothers, play the role in decision-making about family meal planning and diet. Women also initiate and preserve the nutritional and healthcare programs of children at home. In addition, women are not only caring for their children at home but are also the primary caretakers of both children and elders in every country of the world. International studies indicate that women lead in finding solutions to the problems occasioned by a change of political and economic organizations in countries, thereby helping the family adjust to new realities and challenges. Indeed, women are the initiators who play important role in facilitating changes in family life. The UN Women Watch organization asserts that ” rural women play a key role in supporting their households and communities in achieving food and nutritional security, generating income, and improving rural livelihoods and overall wellbeing.

As educators, the role or contribution of women to society’s transition from pre-literate to the literate period is highly significant. Basic education is key to a nation’s ability to develop and achieve sustainable policies and programs. It is evident that education helps to improve agricultural productivity, enhances the status of girls and women, stabilizes population growth rates, enhances environmental protection and, increases the standard of living. It is the mother at home who most often urges children of both genders to attend and stay in school. The role of women is at the front end of the chain of improvement, leading to the family and the community’s long term capacity.

The role of women in providing an improved and sustainable workforce is also significant and exciting. The women’s share of the global workforce is about 45.5%. Women’s formal and informal labor can transform a community from a relatively autonomous society to a participant in the national economy. It is obvious that despite the cultural, social, and political setbacks of women, small businesses controlled by women in rural communities are not only extending beyond family lifelines but can also form a networked economic foundation for future generations. The role of women in the urban and rural workforce has expanded greatly in recent times.

5. The Capability Approach is defined by its choice of focus upon the moral significance of individuals’ capability of achieving the kind of lives they have reason to value. This distinguishes it from more established approaches to ethical evaluation, such as utilitarianism or resourcism, which focus exclusively on subjective well-being or the availability of means to the good life, respectively. A person’s capability to live a good life is defined in terms of the set of valuable ‘beings and doings’ like being in good health or having loving relationships with others to which they have real access.

The Capability Approach was first articulated by the Indian economist and philosopher Amartya Sen in the 1980s, and remains most closely associated with him. It has been employed extensively in the context of human development, for example, by the United Nations Development Programme, as a broader, deeper alternative to narrowly economic metrics such as growth in GDP per capita. Here ‘poverty’ is understood as deprivation in the capability to live a good life, and ‘development’ is understood as capability expansion.

Within academic philosophy the novel focus of Capability Approach has attracted a number of scholars. It is seen to be relevant for the moral evaluation of social arrangements beyond the development context, for example, for considering gender justice. It is also seen as providing foundations for normative theorising, such as a capability theory of justice that would include an explicit ‘metric’ (that specifies which capabilities are valuable) and ‘rule’ (that specifies how the capabilities are to be distributed). The philosopher Martha Nussbaum has provided the most influential version of such a capability theory of justice, deriving from the requirements of human dignity a list of central capabilities to be incorporated into national constitutions and guaranteed to all up to a certain threshold.

This article focuses on the philosophical aspects of the Capability Approach and its foundations in the work of Amartya Sen. It discusses the development and structure of Sen’s account, how it relates to other ethical approaches, and its main contributions and criticisms. It also outlines various capability theories developed within the Capability Approach, with particular attention to that of Martha Nussbaum.

6. (i) Life Sustenance, i.e., Ability to Meet Basic Needs: It is also known as “the ability to meet basic needs”. All the persons have certain basic needs which are necessary for the survival. They consist of food, shelter, health and protection. If any one of them is missing or in short supply in any economy it would represent the state of under-development. Therefore, the purpose of economic development and economic activity is to make the possible efforts whereby the helplessness and misery of the people which arises due to lack of food, shelter, health and protection could be removed. 
Self-Esteem, i.e., to be a Person:

A second universal component of the good life is a self-esteem, a sense of worth and self-respect. It means that the other people could not use him for their own ends. It also means that each person should be given his due respect and due right. Each person is desirous of his prestige, identity and recognition, though all f such values differ from country to country and from society to society. It is being observed now a days that when the process of economic development starts in a country the inequalities in the distribution of income increase. Because of such inequality the rich class considers itself superior to the poor. In this way, the poor segment of the society suffers from inferiority complex which leads to affect their efficiency.
Freedom from Servitude, i.e., to be Able to Choose:

The third universal value required for economic development is concerned with human freedom. By freedom it means the emancipation from alienating material conditions of life and from social servitude to nature, ignorance, other people, misery, institutions and dogmatic beliefs. As Arthur Lewis says: “Advantage of economic growth is not that wealth increases happiness, but that it increases the range of human choice”.

7. When we wonder whether money can buy happiness, we may consider the luxuries it provides, like expensive dinners and lavish vacations. But cash is key in another important way: It helps people avoid many of the day-to-day hassles that cause stress, new research shows.

Money can provide calm and control, allowing us to buy our way out of unforeseen bumps in the road, whether it’s a small nuisance, like dodging a rainstorm by ordering up an Uber, or a bigger worry, like handling an unexpected hospital bill, says Harvard Business School professor Jon Jachimowicz.

“If we only focus on the happiness that money can bring, I think we are missing something,” says Jachimowicz, an assistant professor of business administration in the Organizational Behavior Unit at HBS. “We also need to think about all of the worries that it can free us from.”

The idea that money can reduce stress in everyday life and make people happier impacts not only the poor, but also more affluent Americans living at the edge of their means in a bumpy economy. Indeed, in 2019, one in every four Americans faced financial scarcity, according to the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. The findings are particularly important now, as inflation eats into the ability of many Americans to afford basic necessities like food and gas, and COVID-19 continues to disrupt the job market.

Buying less stress

The inspiration for researching how money alleviates hardships came from advice that Jachimowicz’s father gave him. After years of living as a struggling graduate student, Jachimowicz received his appointment at HBS and the financial stability that came with it.

“My father said to me, ‘You are going to have to learn how to spend money to fix problems.’” The idea stuck with Jachimowicz, causing him to think differently about even the everyday misfortunes that we all face.

8. Economic growth is considered to be an increase in the production of goods and services by per person in a population, compared from one time period to another. An increase in capital goods, labour forces, new territories, technology, and human capital can also contribute to economic growth. While, Economic development is the increase in the standard of living from a low-income economy to a high-income economy. It considers factors such as health, education, working conditions, domestic and international policies, and market conditions with a focus on improving conditions in developing countries. For example, all such factors were affected during the COVID-19 times, even coronavirus has impacted the global economy adversely.

NAME: Ugwu Sandra Amarachukwu
REG NO:2019/251531
DEPARTMENT:Library and information science
COURSE: ECeconomic development)
(1)
Dudley Seers suggests that development is when a country experiences a reduction or elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment. Edgar suggested that development is when there is development of people (human development) and not development of things. Development means creating the conditions for the realization of human personality. Its evaluation must therefore take into account three linked economic criteria: whether there has been a reduction in (i) poverty (ii) unemployment (iii) inequality.

(2)
strictly economic terms, development has traditionally meant achieving sustained rates of growth of income per capita to enable a nation to expand its output at a rate faster than the growth rate of its population. Levels and rates of growth of “real” per capita gross national income (GNI) (monetary growth of GNI per capita minus the rate of inflation) are then used to measure the overall economic well-being of a population—how much of real goods and services is available to the average citizen for consumption and investment. Economic development in the past has also been typically seen in terms of the planned alteration of the structure of production and employment so that agriculture’s share of both declines and that of the manufacturing and service industries increases. Development strategies have therefore usually focused on rapid industrialization, often at the expense of agriculture and rural development. With few exceptions, such as in development policy circles in the 1970s, development was until recently nearly always seen as an economic phenomenon in which rapid gains in overall and per capita GNI growth would either “trickle down” to the masses in the form of jobs and other economic opportunities or create the necessary conditions for the wider distribution of the economic and social benefits of growth. Problems of poverty, discrimination,unemployment, and income distribution were of secondary importance to “getting the growth job done.” Indeed, the emphasis is often on increased output,measured by gross domestic product (GDP).
(3)
Development is the process of expanding human freedom. It is “the enhancement of freedoms that allow people to lead lives that they have reason to live. Thus poverty, malnutrition, poor sanitation, tyranny, poor economic opportunities, social deprivations, poor public facilities, intolerance, communalisation, ethnic centricity, repressive state apparatuses, lack of education, absence of health care, lack of security, corruption can all be termed un-freedoms.

(4)
They play the role of mothers, caretakers in family affairs, farmers, educators, entrepreneurs, teachers, e.t.c. It is historic that women play significant roles in societal development and ensure the stability, progress, and long-term development of nations. Women also play the role of decision-makers in homes. The woman performs the role of wife, partner, organizer, administrator, director, re-creator, disburser, economist, mother, disciplinarian, teacher, health officer, artist and queen in the family at the same time. Apart from it, woman plays a key role in the socio-economic development of the society.

(5)
The main reason why the capability approach holds that it is better to focus on the ends rather than the means, is that people differ in their ability to convert means into valuable opportunities (capabilities) or outcomes (functionings)
Sen argues that people’s well-being depends upon what they are actually capable of doing and being. Thus, he focused on something more direct such as human functionings and capabilities in terms of which the quality of life is analyzed.
Capability to function then finally refers to a person’s set of achievable functioning vectors. It is the ultimate measure of well-being for a person in Sen’s framework as it reflects the substantive (positive) freedoms and opportunities an individual enjoys in life.
The concept of “functionings” reflects the various things a person may value doing or being. The valued functionings may vary from elementary ones, such as being adequately nourished and being free from avoidable disease, to very complex activities or personal states, such as being able to take part in the life of the community and having self-respect.
For Sen, human “well-being” means being well, in the basic sense of being healthy, well nourished, well clothed, literate, and long-lived and more broadly, being able to take part in the life of the community, being mobile, and having freedom of choice in what one can become and can do.
(6)
Sustenance: The Ability to Meet Basic Needs All people have certain basic needs without which life would be impossible. These life-sustaining basic human needs include food, shelter, health, and protection.
Self-esteem: To Be a Person A second universal component of the good life is self-esteem. The feeling of worthiness that a society enjoys when its social, political, and economic systems and institutions promote human values such as respect, dignity, integrity, and selfdetermination.
Freedom: A situation in which a society has at its disposal a variety of alternatives from which to satisfy its wants and individuals enjoy real choices according to their preferencesa sense of worth and self-respect, of not being used as a tool by others for their own ends. All peoples and societies seek some basic form of self-esteem, although they may call it authenticity, identity, dignity, respect,honor, or recognition.
(7)
Clearly, happiness is part of human well-being, and greater happiness may in itself expand an individual’s capability to function. As Amartya Sen argued, “Utility in the sense of happiness may well be included in the list of some important functionings relevant to a person’s well-being.

(8)
Economic growth means an increase in real national income / national output while Economic development means an improvement in the quality of life and living standards, e.g. measures of literacy, life-expectancy and health care.
Economic growth is a stepping stone/bedrock to economic development without growth there will be no development.

Name: Eze Daniel Uchenna
Reg Number: 2018/244280
Department: Economics

1. Economic inequality is the unequal distribution of income and opportunity between different groups in the society. Poverty is the lack of income. Development however, seeks to eliminate the problem of poverty and inequality as there is an efficient distribution of productive resources as well as creating of income and output.
2. Development brings about an efficient allocation of scarce productive resources which eliminates problem of inequality. The increase in output and income reduces the poverty rate in the economy. A change in composition of output is brought about by a combination of various inputs into production caused by development.
3. Yes I agree to the assertion. Poor economic opportunities, tyranny can not let development occur in an economy and for development to thrive means a total removal of these problems.
4. The central role of women is to make the biggest impact on development, societies must empower and invest in women.
5. Being able to live long, being well nourished, being healthy, being literate, being well clothed, being mobile, being able to travel.
6. Sustenance: is the ability to meet the basic needs of life. E.g food, shelter, water. Self esteem: is the confidence in oneself to be able to do things. Freedom: is the ability to be choose and demand certain things.
7. There is no perfect correlation between happiness and higher incomes. People could be poor and happy and also be rich and unhappy so I do not agree there’s a direct correlation.
8. Economic Growth is defined as the rise in the money value of goods and services produced by all the sectors of the economy per head during a particular period. It is a quantitative measure that shows the increase in the number of commercial transactions in an economy. Economic growth can be expressed in terms of gross domestic product (GDP) and gross national product (GNP), which helps in measuring the size of the economy. It lets us compare in absolute and percentage change, i.e. how much an economy has progressed since last year. It is an outcome of the increase in the quality and quantity of resources and advancement of technology. WHILE Economic Development is defined as the process of increase in volume of production along with the improvement in technology, a rise in the level of living, institutional changes, etc. In short, it is the progress in the socio-economic structure of the economy. Human Development Index (HDI) is the appropriate tool to gauge the development in the economy. Based on the development, the HDI statistics rank countries. It considers the overall development in an economy regarding the standard of living, GDP, living conditions, technological advancement, improvement in self-esteem needs, the creation of opportunities, per capita income, infrastructural and industrial development, and much more.

1. Professor Dudley Seers’ argument believes that the measurement of development in an economy is not entirely about the net income but rather about how much growth has occurred in the economy.
This growth is seen as the outcome of the economy which further leads to development. As recorded and analyzed to be true “Economic development is not possible without Growth but, growth is possible without development happening.”
The measurement of development in an economy is done by the assessment of;
1. how much the rate of poverty has reduced or become eliminated in an economy.
2. How well inequality amongst the masses or between the government official and the masses are eradicated? Placing every individual and society at the same level.
3. How Unemployment is gravely reduced and possibly annihilated from the economy. Ensuring those who are employed don’t just have random jobs, but are gainfully employed. Thereby, eliminating underemployment and only provision of seasonal and voluntary unemployment made provision to be accommodated.

2. As previously discussed, we understand that the rate of outcomes is what determines the level of developing an economy has attained.
Changes in the composition of output refer to the changes consumers make in their decisions on how to spend their incomes based on their tastes, preferences and market prices.
The allocation of productive resources becomes based on needs and the actual value of the population, not that influenced by bias. Baring in mind that resources are not limited to money or natural minerals but also skills, knowledge, energy, time and much more.
Positive changes in the reduction and elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment.
These three (3) points indicate how an upward movement in the development of an economy can occur alongside a rise in output.

3. Development according to Amartya Sen is the process of expanding real freedom that people enjoy. It removes the constraint in achieving our purpose, goal and aim.
This means it requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom, poverty as well tyranny, and social deprivation.
The essence is that people can achieve and do whatever they want regarding self-development and not focus on the cost of such improvement in the meantime.

4. Women are very important in the building of a nation. They play the role of mothers, caretakers in family affairs, farmers, educators, entrepreneurs, teachers, etc. It is historic that women play significant roles in societal development and ensure the stability, progress, and long-term development of nations. It shows clearly that supporting a stronger role for women contributes to economic growth, improves child survival and overall family health, and reduces fertility, thus helping to slow population growth rates. In short, investing in women is central to sustainable development.
Also, the empowerment of women will improve the amount of output and positive outcomes in the economy thereby, aiding economic development.

5. Being well-nourished: in a developed economy, the masses are expected to be well-fed, eating a healthy and balanced diet.
Being able to be involved and take part in the life in the life of the community. Engaging in a developmental and entertaining activity
Being well clothed: the masses should be equipped enough to dress according to the weather conditions and events. During the dry season, individuals should be able to put on sweaters and socks.
Being mobile: Mobility refers to the easy movement of human labour and resources. The ability to change jobs due to location or change in career choices and also, the ability for resources to be transported from one state to another.

6.
1.Sustenance: the ability to meet basic needs. This is a measurement of well individuals, families, society and a nation can thrive,
2. Self-esteem: To be a person. This implies seeing oneself in the light of positivity and optimism.
3. Freedom from servitude: The ability to choose who to serve and possibly earn from. Not limiting service to servanthood.

7. There is an absence of a perfect correlation between happiness and income. People can be poor and happy, Rich and unhappy.
There are however factors that could affect the happiness of an individual. For instance, financial conditions, family relations, work satisfaction, personal values and personal freedom.
These factors can alter the state of happiness in an individual, whether or not money/more income is present.

8. Economic Growth is a narrower concept than Economic Development which is broad. It is a short-term process whereas, Economic Development is a long-term process which leads to progressive changes in the socioeconomic structure of a country.
The measurement of economic growth is done through an increase in income which involves GDP, GNP and GNI whereas, Economic Development is a sufficient condition of improving human welfare, raising the standard of living and the reduction of poverty.

Okhueigbe Charity Omonye
2019/244711
Davidcharity97@gmail.com

Question:Professor Dudley Seers argues that development is about outcomes ie development occurs with the reduction and elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment within a growing economy. Discuss

Ans: Economic development, according to seers, development is when a country experiences a reduction or elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment in the above definition we see that a country’s economic development priorities vary, often aim for common, positive results, such as: creating more jobs and more job variety, Keeping businesses and getting new ones,A better quality of life, More people and businesses paying taxes, More productive use of property, Promoting your community’s assets, Making and selling more local products, Getting more skilled workers living in your community. All these are necessary outcomes for the reduction and elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment. This is achievable not just by the government but with the help of locals, groups, NGO’s etc The achievement of the above mentioned outcomes will result in the development of the nation.

Question: In the words of Amartya Sen “Development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom, poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systematic social deprivation neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or over activity of repressive states. Do you agree? Explain in details

Ans: Emphasis on ‘freedom’.
Development is the process of expanding human freedom I.e that allows people to feel that they have a reason to live…
Development is enhanced by democracy and the protection of human rights such as freedom of speech, press and assembly For development to occur, there should be an improvement in the overall well-being of the economy and increase in the standard of living of the people. However, the presence of the major sources of unfreedom such as poverty, tyranny, poor economic opportunities, etc, can hinder the wellbeing of the economy and decrease the standard of living. Therefore it will be wrong or rather strange to say that development has occurred due to an increase in output (GDP) when these conditions are still present. Amartya Sen argued for the inclusion of the removal of major sources of unfreedom in defining development and not merely the narrow approach of rise in output as some economists believe.
According to 1998 Amartya sen, freedom is both primary objective and the principal means of development. The human being is an engine of change.

Reference
https://www.asiancenturyinstitute.com/development/333-amartya-sen-on-developmentas-free

Question: critically discuss the central role of women in the national development

Ans:According shauni, women performs the role of a wife, partner, organizer, administrator, director, re-creator, disburser, economist, mother, disciplinarian, teacher, health officer, artist and queen in the family at the same time. Apart from it, woman plays a key role in the socio-economic development of the society. Modern education and modern economic life use to compel woman more and more to leave the narrow sphere of the family circle and work side by side for the enrichment of society. She can be member of any women’s organization and can launch various programs like literacy program such as adult education, education for disadvantaged girls etc.The purpose of introducing such literacy program is to raise the society as education enables women to respond to opportunities, to challenge their traditional roles and to change their life circumstances. Education is the most important instrument for human resource development. 
Women are the key to sustainable development and quality of life. So they should be members of community centre or club to disseminate knowledge about handicraft, or cottage industries, food preservation and low cost nutritious diet to people belonging to low socio economic status for their economic uplift. They should act as leaders of the society to raise voice against women violence, exploitation in household as well as in work place, dowry prohibition superstition and other social atrocities. Women are the key to sustainable development and quality of life. So they should be members of community centre or club to disseminate knowledge about handicraft, cottage industries, food preservation and low cost nutritious diet to people belonging low socio economic status for their economic upliftment. They should act as leaders of the society to raise voice against women violence, exploitation in household as well as in work place, dowry prohibition superstition and other social atrocities.They should be member of religious institution to deliver spiritual speech to adolescent boys and girls in order to eliminate juvenile delinquency problem from the society. In addition they have pivotal role in pre and post marital counseling for adolescent girl regarding sexual transmitted disease. AIDS and other infectious diseases. They are supposed to create awareness about Human rights, women and child rights, credit facility of bank, different immunization programs to low socio economic status people of the society. 
Moreover it is the women who have sustained the growth of society and moulded the future of nations. In the emerging complex social scenario, women have a vital role to play in different sectors. They can no longer be considered as mere harbingers of peace but are emerging as the source of power and symbol of progress.

Women in most societies, whether developed or developing are regarded as currency with which political and economic alliances are cemented. Women are the fundamental human reservoir of every society as they control most of the non-monetary economy (subsistence, agriculture, bearing children, domestic labour etc.) and play an important role in the monetary (training wage labour, employment etc Yawa, (1995).Various researchers (Agbola 1990. 1996, Okoro 1996, Mivaniyi 1996, Ekong 2006, Mabogunje (1991) had reported on the contributions of women in agriculture, community, development and physical development. For instance, Ekong (2006) asserts that women are the keys to development and therefore crucial to the goal of sustainable development. In 1975 FAQ reported that 70% of all domestic and households chores are performed by women. This trend has not changed except that women now take additional burden of extra – domestic affairs. Agboola (1990) confirmed this assertion by concluding that women are the operators of the economy my constitute a major arm of the labour force, and that Nigerian women are dynamic industrial and resourceful.
All these researchers had looked at contributions of women based on the cultural gender division of labour, when before the colonial era was restricted to farm and household activities. But the contributions of women in national development were beyong agriculture and household duties. Few works (Olurin 1996). Agboola (1996) Mabogunge (1991) assessed their contribution beyond farm and household chores (subsistence) and noted that the narrow perception of women’s duties may be attributed to the late arrival of women in the colonial system or administrative works. Mabogunje (1991) identified the eight cardinal elements of sustainable development as the affect women e.g. education, health culture, politics, economy, agriculture, enhanced environments quality and peaceful co-existence.In order to identify and tap their resources so as to ensure optimal performance in national development efforts should be made for holistic development of women along the following lines.
a. Encouragement of the formation of more women agricultural and business cooperatives. This will lead to the encouraging social network activities
b. Professional bodies should be encouraged to carryout enlightenment campaigns in secondary schools to emphasize the involvement of the girls in choice of subjects.
c. Education of the womenfolk especially the rural women provision of basic education to the women and especially junior staff in government employ should also be given in service training. This will provide a multiplier effect to the education of youths in the state.
d. Political parties should pursue a vigorous enlightenment campaigns on the involvement of women in politics and bring out modalities on mainstreaming them for elective positions.
e. The Nigeria nation owes the womenfolk the responsibility of removing those artificial and institutional barriers bared on religion, culture or traditional consideration which have incapacitated

references:
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/family/role-of-women-in-the-family-and-society/47638

International Journal for Innovation Education and Research http://www.ijier.net Vol:-3 No-5, 2015 The Contributions Of Nigeria Women Towards National Development
OGUNJEMILUA A.A
Department of Social Studies, College of Education, IKERE – EKITI.
FAMILUGBA J.O.
Department of History, College of Education, Ikere – Ekiti
journal.net/index.php/ijier/article/download/363/282

Question:clearly discuss some important Beings and Doings in capability Function

Ans:Beings and doings in capability to function
1.Being well clothed
2.Being healthy
3.Being able to take part in the life of the community
4.Being mobile

1.being well clothed: one is being addressed the way you are dressed. Every individual should have access to good clothing. For instance in colder regions, there should be availability of proper clothings.
2.Being healthy: Every individual should have access to quality health care services. Their is high mortality rate in developing nations as opposed to developed nations.
3.Being able to take part in the life of the community: Each individual should be able to identify with his community. In developing nations there are many factors that hinder one from participating in the activities of the community such as poverty, insecurity, to mention but a few.
4.Being mobile: in most developing nations, there are many restrictions or barriers to movement of labor, such as trade barriers. Citizens should be able to freely move from one job to another if they don’t receive the work satisfaction they desire.

Question: discuss the three core values of development with relevant Example

Ans:Sustenance: refers to the basic needs of a human being without which survival would not be possible. These needs include food, shelter, security and good health. Shortage of any of these necessities implies a situation of severe underdevelopment of the economy. Development, therefore, must lead to the reduction of these shortages and fulfill these basic needs of the population. The benefits of growth must be accompanied by a reduction in this absolute poverty situation. As a result, improvement in the quality of overall life in an economy is bound to occur.

Self-esteem:The quality of life is good when there is respect, trust, and self-value. Each person has needs which can be achieved through the presence of respect, dignity, and a good reputation in society. A person’s worth as an individual cannot simply be measured by the ownership of material things which is often given emphasis by progressive capitalist countries such as the United States. In the Philippines, material wealth is not the only important thing but the love for one’s family, the family’s reputation, and a person’s dignity and self-esteem. A country is developed if this unique need of the people is addressed.

Freedom from Servitude:This freedom is drawn from liberation from oppressive systems in society, poverty and abuse, slavery, ignorance, and the absence of the freedom to choose one’s culture or religion. This freedom can be seen in the range of choices in a society. What is good about development is not only the joy of being free from poverty but also the availability of a wide range of choices. In general, freedom prevails if people live a comfortable life, if they have the freedom to choose their religion, to vote and to express their opinion about administration and governance, and if they enjoy equal opportunities for education and employment.

References:
https://spureconomics.com/three-core-values-of-development/

https://discover.hubpages.com/politics/Three-Core-Values-of-Development-Economics

Question: Some scholars have argued that happiness has a direct correlation with more income while others disagree with the assertion.

Ans: I disagree with the above assertion…
my income is to make me happy but the more income I earn,the more I spend .the more my taste increases, the more problems….
….In Nigeria, happiness does not rely only on my income but what I do with it (sometimes it is used to settle bills,
Family problems, Medicals(very expensive), Personal freedom, Community and friends e.t.c. My income is taxed obliged and it is enriching the government pockets.and it causes me to reduce the quality of things I need to get so that i can save from the earned income…
…No matter the way we generate income we happy that we can settle the above mentioned problems. unfortunately, In Nigeria the masses are not happy the way we earn without a choice but still contended and managing that’s why we are tagged (suffering and smiling).

Question:Distinguish  between Economic Growth and Economic Development and tell us where we are currently as a nation in terms of growth and development.

Ans:
1.Economic growth means an increase in real national income / national output.
2.Economic development means an improvement in the quality of life and living standards, e.g. measures of literacy, life-expectancy and health care.

Ceteris paribus, we would expect economic growth to enable more economic development. Higher real GDP enables more to be spent on health care and education.

However, the link is not guaranteed. The proceeds of economic growth could be wasted or retained by a small wealthy elite.GDP per capita is a measure of economic growthGPI = Genuine Progress Indicator. This is a more comprehensive measure of living standards than just GDP. GPI also takes into account the environment, health care, pollution and education and therefore can be used as a measure of economic development.
Economic growth measures an increase in Real GDP (real output). GDP is a measure of the national income / national output and national expenditure. It basically measures the total volume of goods and services produced in an economy

Nigeria as a developing country is being affected by the following factors
1.Levels of infrastructure – e.g. transport and communication
2.Levels of corruption, e.g what percentage of tax rates are actually collected and spent on public services.
3.Educational standards and labour productivity. Basic levels of literacy and education can determine the productivity of the workforce.
4.Levels of inward investment. For example, China has invested in many African countries to help export raw materials, that its economy needs.
5.Labour mobility. Is labour able to move from relatively unproductive agriculture to more productive manufacturing?
6.The flow of foreign aid and investment. Targeted aid, can help improve infrastructure and living standards.
7.Level of savings and investment. Higher savings can fund more investment, helping economic growth.

It is possible to have economic growth without development. i.e. an increase in GDP, but most people don’t see any actual improvements in living standards.

References
https://www.economicshelp.org/blog/1187/development/economic-growth-and-development/

https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/nigeria/overview

NAME: AUDU JACINTHA OCHANYA
DEPARTMENT: ECONOMICS/PHILOSOPHY
REG NO: 2019/246511
1
Development means creating the conditions for the realization of human personality. Its evaluation must therefore take into account three linked economic criteria: whether there has been a reduction in poverty, unemployment, inequality. G.N.P can grow rapidly without any improvement on these criteria, so development must be measured more directly. The conceptual and practical problems of a number of indicators are discussed and also the implications for planning, both national and international. For Dudley development to achieve there must be reasonable reduction in unemployment meaning for that to be possible the government must be productive in nature. There government should provide an avenue in which private individual can invest in the productive industry thereby creating unemployment opportunities for individual in the process poverty will be reduced. There must be equitable distribution of resource and employment should be based on capability not the region of the country a person belongs to. In a growing economy like Nigeria there is high rate of unemployment, poverty and inequality in the nation. Nigeria is spending while it’s not producing which is sinking the country into penury, jobs and contract are being awarded to persons from a particular side of the country without considering their intellectual capability to perform the job, this leads to mismanagement of resource.
2
Economy development is not all about economic growth but also increment in sustenance of man and it’s environment. A shift in the allocation of productive resources ensures there is equitable distribution of resources among various sectors and regions of a country without any kind favoritisms to particular region. All involving an economy to develop as well as increase in the output in respect to poverty reduction. Inequality among the government of a country and it’s people is among constraint of economy development or productivity, when government allocate resources to places in which they are not needed this resources will be mismanagement this leads to dissatisfaction amongst some people. An economy in the poor get poorer and the rich get richer, development will be very hard to achieve in such place. Productivity should be encouraged for a country to achieve full employment and elimination of poverty, when productivity is made possible there would be increase in the standard of living of individual and an increase in per capita income of person this also in the process eliminates poverty to an extent.
3
Sen describes human freedom as both the primary end objective and the principle means of development; economic measures are merely the means to this end. Development as Freedom is an informal text that brings together multidisciplinary insights from politics, economics, ethics, economics, demography, and sociology. Development as the realization of freedom and the abolishment of ‘unfreedoms’ such as poverty, famine, and lack of political rights. Arguments are strongly supported with vivid accounts of real living and working conditions for men and women indeveloping communities in Asia and Africa. He argues that there is no direct link between a measure such as a country’s GNP growth rate and the real freedoms that its citizens enjoy. For example, countries like South Africa and Brazil have a higher per capita GNP but lower life expectancy when compared to Sri Lanka and China.Though recognizing the importance of economic benchmarks, Sen argues for the need for an expanded definition of development to include real human ‘freedoms’ such as political freedoms, economic facilities, social opportunities, transparency guarantees and protective security. This human freedom is both the primary end objective and the principle means of development. Sen stresses the need to abolish ‘unfreedoms’ such as poverty, famine, starvation, undernourishment, tyranny, poor economic opportunities, systematic social deprivation, neglect of public facilities, intolerance, and over-activity of repressive states.

4
Women play significant roles in societal development and ensure the stability, progress, and long-term development of nations.
Globally, women contribute immensely to agricultural development, comprising about 43% of the world’s agricultural labor force. In some countries, the number of women involved in the agricultural labor force increases to over 70%. Available records indicate that in Africa alone, 80% of agricultural production comes from small farmers, most of whom are rural women.
At home, women, notably mothers, play the role in decision-making about family meal planning and diet. Women also initiate and preserve the nutritional and healthcare programs of children at home. In addition, women are not only caring for their children at home but are also the primary caretakers of both children and elders in every country of the world.
As educators, the role or contribution of women to society’s transition from pre-literate to the literate period is highly significant. Basic education is key to a nation’s ability to develop and achieve sustainable policies and programs. It is evident that education helps to improve agricultural productivity, enhances the status of girls and women, stabilizes population growth rates, enhances environmental protection and, increases the standard of living.
The role of women as volunteers in local and international organizations for development has global collective recognition.

5
Being well-nourished: Good nutrition (not only food) is essential for the growth of an economy; if citizens have the proper nutrition, their economies will flourish and they will be able to engage in economic activities. A healthy individual will put in more effort to increase productivity, but a sick one will be less productive.
Being properly attired: The apparel that people wear throughout production seasons can have an impact on how productively they contribute to an economy. Wearing a light, well-covered outfit during the summer instead of a heavy one can increase productivity. Additionally, the way a person dresses affects their confidence to engage in productive activities.
6
Sustenance
Sustenance refers to the basic needs of a human being without which survival would not be possible. These needs include food, shelter, security and good health. Shortage of any of these necessities implies a situation of severe underdevelopment of the economy. Development, therefore, must lead to the reduction of these shortages and fulfil these basic needs of the population. The benefits of growth must be accompanied by a reduction in this absolute poverty situation. As a result, improvement in the quality of overall life in an economy is bound to occur.
Self- Esteem
Every individual is entitled to a sense of self-worth or self-respect. Although the nature of self-esteem may change with society or the economy, the basic idea remains the same. All people have the right to a life of dignity and honour. Respect, however, is often attached to wealth and the underdevelopment of an economy can be a burden on people’s self-esteem. Hence to promote self-worth, development must be spread across the whole economy and not just certain sections within it.
Freedom
Freedom refers to not just freedom from servitude, but also from discrimination, oppressive beliefs and practices. Equal opportunity and freedom in every aspect of the social, legal, cultural and political situation are necessary for every individual. Everyone must be free to choose and have control over their own life and actions. Growth without freedom has been observed in many nations, which defeats the purpose of development.
7
The vast body of research on income and well-being almost exclusively looks at evaluative well-being. A person’s summary assessment of their life, such as overall life satisfaction, is known as evaluative well-being. These studies demonstrate that those who earn more typically report having higher levels of evaluative well-being.
Researchers from Princeton University discovered in their original 2010 study that people’s level of daily happiness rises with income up to a point of roughly $75,000 before leveling out. So, according on this research, a person earning $100,000 a year is not necessarily happy on a daily basis than a person earning $75,000
One of the most well-known conclusions from the economic study of happiness is that while overall pleasure rises with income, diminishing returns begin to take effect after a certain point. In addition
8.
A. Economic growth relates a gradual increase in one of the components of GDP; consumption, government spending, investment or net exports while Economic development relates to growth of human capital indexes and decrease in inequality.It is concerned with how people are affected.
B. Economic growth is single dimensional in nature as it only focuses on income of the people while Economic development is multi-dimensional in nature as it focuses on both income and improvement of living standards of the people.
C. It refers to an increase over time in a country’s real output of goods and services (GNP) or real output per capita income while Economic development includes process and policies by which a country improves the social, economic and political well-being of its people.
D. Economic growth refers to increase in the monetary(income) growth of a nation in a particular period. It takes place when there is a sustained (ongoing for at least 1-2 years) increase in a country output of goods and services while Economic development refers to the overall development of the quality of life in a nation which includes economic growth. It occurs when the standard of living of a large majority of the population rises, including both income and other dimensions like health and illiteracy.
E. Economic growth is a necessary but insufficient condition for economic development while Economic development is a necessary and sufficient condition for improvement of human welfare, raising of standard of living and reduction of poverty.
Nigeria is still in economic growth considering the fact that we have eliminated unemployment, poverty and inequality in the economic atmosphere.

NAME: Ugwu confidence Chika
DEPT: Combined Social Sciences (Economics/Political science)
REG NO: 2019/245041
YEAR: 300L
QUESTION ONE
Professor Dudley Seers argues that development is about outcomes, that is development occurs with the reduction and elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment within a growing economy. Discuss

Before Dudley Seer propounded his theory of development, there was so much concentration on the national income as an indicator of development by many economists, politicians, etc because it is very convenient to use it as an indicator that can be easily quantified and movements in which can be analyzed. Many economists believed that development is achieved when a country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) grows at 5% to 7% above and the increases are sustained over a long period of time. They believed that when such increases occurred, then that country has achieved development. To them, development was based mainly on material increase. Based on the believe, many developing countries in the 1960s and 1970s experienced increased in their Gross Domestic Product but the general levels of living of the masses remained unchanged. That is, the increases in growth (GDP) do not have any direct effect on quality of life of the people. These made many economists to reconsider what development really is and hence glamour for direct attack on widespread of poverty, increasing inequality in income distribution and rising unemployment. To them development should have a “human face”. That is, it should be something that should be seen in the lives of the people. Amongst these economist was Professor Dudley Seers who argues that Economic development is about outcomes. According to Seer, development is about the level of poverty, unemployment and inequality in a nation. He believes that for a nation to know they are really develop or not, they need to ask themselves three basic questions which are:
1. What has been happening to poverty?
2. What has been happening to unemployment?
3. What has been happening to inequality?
To Seer, if all three of these are declining, then beyond doubt, that nation is experiencing development. These mean that true development happens when poverty is reduced or eliminated, unemployment declining and the levels of inequality is reducing. Of course, reduction in these three development indicators will in no doubt increases the well been and quality of life of a nation’s citizens. Thus, according to Seer if poverty, unemployment and inequality is decreasing in a nation, that nation is said to be developing and vice versa.
QUESTION 2
Apart from a rise in output, Economic Development involves changes in composition of output, shift in the allocation of productive resources, and elimination or reduction of poverty, inequalities and unemployment. Clearly discuss the above assertion.
The assertion implies that economic growth is a necessary but insufficient condition for economic development. In other words, for an increase in economic development, there first has to be an increase in economic growth. This is because economic growth is characterized by an increase in the production of economic goods and services in one period of time thus, often but not necessarily, aggregate gains in production correlate with increased average marginal productivity. That leads to an increase in incomes, inspiring consumers to open up their wallets and buy more, which means a higher material quality of life and standard of living. To put simply the assertion states that economic development includes the concept of economic growth but also the concept of structural transformation of the economy and society.
QUESTION 3
In the words of Amartya Sen “Development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom, poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systematic social deprivation neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or over activity of repressive states. Do you agree? Explain in details
Sen calls for a broadening of the term ‘development’ beyond the current narrow focus on economic measures such as per capita GDP and income levels. He argues that there is no direct link between a measure such as a country’s GNP growth rate and the real freedoms that its citizens enjoy. For example, countries like South Africa and Brazil have a higher per capita GNP but lower life expectancy when compared to Sri Lanka and china. Though recognizing the importance of economic benchmarks, Sen argues for the need for an expanded definition of development to include real human ‘freedoms’ such as political freedoms, economic facilities, social opportunities, transparency guarantees and protective security. This human freedom is both the primary end objective and the principle means of development. In tandem, Sen stresses the need to abolish ‘unfreedoms’ such as poverty, famine, starvation, undernourishment, tyranny, poor economicopportunities, systematic social deprivation, neglect of public facilities, intolerance, and over-activity of repressive states.
Sen argues that there are five types of interrelated freedoms, namely, political freedom, economic facilities, social opportunities, transparency and security. The state has a role in supporting freedoms by providing public education, health care, social safety nets, good macroeconomic policies, productivity and protecting the environment. Freedom implies not just to do something, but the capabilities to make it happen. What people can achieve (their capabilities) is influenced by “economic opportunities, political liberties, social powers, and the enabling condition of good health, basic education, and the encouragement and cultivation of initiatives.” For Sen, “capability deprivation” is a better measure of poverty than low income.
QUESTION 4
Critically discuss the Central Role of Women in the National Development
Women are the set of human beings that belongs to the female gender. They play the role of mothers, caretakers in family affairs, farmers, educators, entrepreneurs, teachers, e.t.c. It is historic that women play significant roles in societal development and ensure the stability, progress, and long-term development of nations. Women also play the role of decision-makers in homes. Globally, women contribute immensely to agricultural development, comprising about 43% of the world’s agricultural labor force. In some countries, the number of women involved in the agricultural labor force increases to over 70%. Available records indicate that in Africa alone, 80% of agricultural production comes from small farmers, most of whom are rural women. It is noteworthy that agriculture is the bedrock of national development as the best approach to food security, poverty reduction, job creation, and economic stability.
At home, women, notably mothers, play the role in decision-making about family meal planning and diet. Women also initiate and preserve the nutritional and healthcare programs of children at home. In addition, women are not only caring for their children at home but are also the primary caretakers of both children and elders in every country of the world. International studies indicate that women lead in finding solutions to the problems occasioned by a change of political and economic organizations in countries, thereby helping the family adjust to new realities and challenges. Indeed, women are the initiators who play important role in facilitating changes in family life. The UN Women Watch organization asserts that ” rural women play a key role in supporting their households and communities in achieving food and nutritional security, generating income, and improving rural livelihoods and overall wellbeing.
As educators, the role or contribution of women to society’s transition from pre-literate to the literate period is highly significant. Basic education is key to a nation’s ability to develop and achieve sustainable policies and programs. It is evident that education helps to improve agricultural productivity, enhances the status of girls and women, stabilizes population growth rates, enhances environmental protection and, increases the standard of living. It is the mother at home who most often urges children of both genders to attend and stay in school. The role of women is at the front end of the chain of improvement, leading to the family and the community’s long term capacity.
The role of women in providing an improved and sustainable workforce is also significant and exciting. The women’s share of the global workforce is about 45.5%. Women’s formal and informal labor can transform a community from a relatively autonomous society to a participant in the national economy. It is obvious that despite the cultural, social, and political setbacks of women, small businesses controlled by women in rural communities are not only extending beyond family lifelines but can also form a networked economic foundation for future generations. The role of women in the urban and rural workforce has expanded greatly in recent times. With the different roles women undertake, they significant roles in societal development and ensure the stability, progress, and long-term development of nations.
QUESTION 5
Clearly discuss some Important “Beings” and “Doings” in Capability to Function
The beings and doings may include
1. Being well-nourished
2. Being sheltered
3.. Being able to work or rest
4. Being literate
5. Being part of a community or group;
6. Being respected
QUESTION 6
Discuss the three Core Values of Development with relevant example
(a) Sustenance – According to Goulet (1971) sustenance is the ability of people to meet the basic needs without which life will be impossible. These needs include food, shelter, health and protection. “Absolute underdevelopment” is when any of these is absent or in critically short supply. Without livelihoods and continuous economic progress, the realization of human potential will be much more difficult.
(b) Self-Esteem – This is the second core value according to Goulet. This value talked about a sense of worth and self respect, a sense of not being used as a tool by others for their own selfish ends. Goulet believed that development is an important way of gaining self-esteem. Self-esteem is nowadays increasingly conferred only on countries and individuals that possess economic wealth, especially in Nigeria. True development should accord selfesteem to her every of her citizen whether they posses economic power or not. According to Human Development Report (2000), any society that is committed to improving the lives of its people must also be committed to fulfilling the self-esteem and equal rights for all.
(c). Freedom from servitude (ability to choose). This is the third core value propounded by Goulet. To him, “freedom should be in form of being freeing from alienating material conditions of life and from social servitude to nature, ignorance, misery and dogmatic beliefs, especially that poverty is predestination”. To be able to make political and economic choice that does not infringe on someone’s rights. Unfortunately, this does not happen in Nigeria. The citizens don’t have the ability to choose, especially their leaders during election because of lots of anomalies such as rigging of election, accompanied by such elections.
QUESTION 7
Some scholars have argued that happiness has a direct correlation with more income while others disagree with the assertion
Research has shown that there is a clear indication that income and happiness are positively associated. However, the level of happiness or the presence of happiness itself also depends on other variables such as age, health, personality, inequality, education, employment, etc and not just income alone. For instance, a rich person suffering from terminal disease (stage four cancer) is not likely to be happy due to an increase in income. Therefore, even though it has been proved that there is a positive relationship between income and happiness, the relationship between the two variables is often weak.
QUESTION 8
Distinguish between Economic Growth and Economic Development and tell us where we are currently as a nation in terms of growth and development.
1. Economic growth is more relevant metric for assessing progress in developed countries while economic development is more relevant to measure progress and quality of life in developing countries.
2. Economic growth is a material/physical concept while economic developmental is more abstract concept
Economic growth is relatively narrow concept while economic development is a broader concept.
3. Economic growth is an automatic process that may or may not require intervention from the government while Economic development requires intervention from the government as all the developmental policies are formed by the government.
4. Economic growth only looks at the quantitative aspect. It brings quantitative changes in the economy while Economic development brings quantitative and qualitative change in the economy.
5 Economic Growth refers to the increment in amount of goods and services produced by an economy while Economic development refers to the reduction and elimination of poverty, unemployment and inequality with the context of growing economy.

Nigeria has experienced economic growth over the years and yet no development in the context of Seer’s theory. For instance, our economic growth kept on increasing from -1.6% in 2016 to 0.8% in 2017, 1.9% in 2018 and has increase to 2.29% in 2019 which is the most increased growth since 2015 (CBN bulletin). It is sad to note that despite these growths, the citizens are still experiencing low standard of living and low quality of life. For instance, Nigeria overtook India as the leading country with population of 86.9 million people living in extreme poverty according to the (World Poverty Clock Report, 2018). This constitutes 46.4% of the estimated 195.6 million total populations. Likewise, in 2019, the figure increased to 93.7 million while in the first quarter of 2020, the figure further increased to 95.9 million people living in extreme poverty. Both figures of 2019 and 2020 (first quarter) constitute 48% of the total population of Nigeria in the respective years.

1: PROFESSOR DUDLEY SEERS ARGUES THAT DEVELOPMENT IS ABOUT OUTCOMES IE DEVELOPMENT OCCURS WITH THE REDUCTION AND ELIMINATION OF POVERTY, INEQUALITY AND UNEMPLOYMENT WITHIN A GROWING COUNTRY.
Dudley Diviners says that improvement is the acknowledgment of the capability of human character through a decrease in destitution, joblessness and disparity. He contends that without these three perspectives, regardless of whether public abundance increments improvement has not occurred. In accordance with the above Dudley Diviners (1969) says “In the event that we ask what a flat out need for this is, one response is clear sufficient food. which is hindering advancement even after the 6th Public Improvement Plan expressed that it will destroy destitution this has not yet become possibly the most important factor good because there has been practically no advancement in r
Dudley Diviners likewise says another viewpoint is Joblessness. He says that a character of an individual can’t create without Work. In that an individual will be reliant upon another person to get their essential necessities and this causes somebody not to involve their maximum capacity as an individual. For instance in Zambia there are a great deal of foundations where young people move on from with passing marks however after this they can’t secure legitimate positions in which they can get a pay.
The third component which Dudley Diviners has discussed is Imbalance. In Zambia for instance imbalance is one of the immense principal factor sural regions while metropolitan regions there is working of new shopping centers, for example, the new shopping center being implicit the UNZA ground. In rustic regions the centers and shops are extremely distant from where they reside subsequently making it truly challenging for the wiped out individuals to get to the facilities in time to that end there is a high passing rate in the country regions.

2. APART FROM A RISE IN OUTPUT ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT INVOLVES CHANGES IN COMPOSITION OF OUTPUT SHIFT IN THE ALLOCATION OF PRODUCTIVE RESOURCES AND ELIMINATION OR REDUCTION OF POVERTY, INEQUALITIES AND UNEMPLOYMENT,CLEARLY DISCUSS THE ABOVE ASSERTION.

It includes changes in the structure of result along with all the more only circulation of result , pay and abundance among the individuals from society. Growth and Development Economic improvement is advancement is monetary abundance of nations or districts for the prosperity of their inhabitants Economic development and improvement are two unique terms utilized in economic. Generally speaking Financial Advancement alludes to the issues of Lacking nations and Financial Development to those of Improvement countries. The terms Monetary Advancement is for more extensive. It suggests moderate changes in the financial design of a country. Viewed in this manner Monetary Improvement includes an investigation of decrease in the portion of Horticulture in Gross domestic product and relating expansion in portions of enterprises , exchange , banking , development and other services. Economic Development just alludes to ascend in yield ; Improvement suggests change in mechanical and institutional association of creation as well as in distributive example of income. Compared to the goal of Advancement , Financial development is not difficult to understand.
By bigger activation of assets and raising their efficiency , yield level can be raised. The cycle of Advancement is undeniably greater. Aside from emerge in yield it includes changes in piece of result , change in the distribution of useful assets , and end or decrease of destitution , disparities and unemployment. Economic improvement is unimaginable without development yet development is conceivable without advancement since development is simply expansion in GNP. It has no different boundaries to it.

3: IN THE WORDS OF AMARTYA SEN DEVELOPMENT REQUIRES THE REMOVAL OF MAJOR SOURCES OF UNFREEDOM, POVERTY AS WELL AS SYSTEMATIC SOCIAL DEPRIVATION NEGLECT OF PUBLIC FACILITIES AS WELL AS INTOLERANCE OR OVER ACTIVITY OF REPRESSIVE STATES DO YOU AGREE? EXPLAIN IN DETAILS

Indeed, Improvement requires the expulsion of significant wellsprings of unfreedom: neediness as well as oppression, poor economic valuable open doors as well as precise social hardship, disregard of public offices too as intolerance or over activity of severe states. Regardless of uncommon expansions in general richness, the contemporary world denies rudimentary opportunities to huge numbers – maybe even the greater part – of individuals. In some cases the absence of meaningful opportunities relates straightforwardly to monetary neediness, which denies individuals of the opportunity to fulfill hunger or to accomplish adequate nourishment, or to get solutions for treatable ailments, other potential chance to be enough dressed, or protected, or to appreciate clean water or sterile offices. In other cases, the unfreedom interfaces near the absence of public offices and social consideration, for example, the absence of epidemiological projects, or of coordinated plans for medical care or instructive offices, or of effective establishments for the upkeep of neighborhood harmony and request. In then again different cases, the infringement of freedom results straightforwardly from a refusal of political and common freedoms by tyrant systems and from imposed limitations on the opportunity to partake in the social, political and monetary existence of the local area.

4: CRITICALLY DISCUSS THE CENTRAL ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Positively, a country contains all kinds of people: on a basic level, both of the genders are liable for the flourishing and improvement of the state and country. Tragically, in the underdeveloped nations ladies are thought of as unfit to help the public reason. Some might lean toward the position with rationale yet others have their own way of thinking.
Ladies training is likewise a significant viewpoint. The people who accept that ladies should play a part to play in public turn of events and progress refer to the instances of present day Europe that was once poor and hungry however the entirety of their brilliance has come about as an outcome of the work set up by the two genders. The others propose that ladies are neither second rate nor equivalent to men. As per their way of thinking, ladies ought to be utilized in the fields where they are required and there should be no presentation of ladies as an instrument.
However the working of ladies has yielded a lot of natural product for the Western world, yet they are dealing with various issues in such manner. They needed to forfeit their everyday life partially. The blending of the two genders brought into reality the agonizing lewd behavior. Illegitimate kids are tracked down to a great extent in those created social orders. Subsequently, the moral and strict qualities are biting the dust rapidly.
This has been a reality that we require ladies specialists, researchers, medical caretakers, advocates, cops, judges, lawmakers and so forth to help our public reason. They must emerge and take their due share. We can not deny them this right in light of the fact that our religion restricts no lady from working. All around the world ladies have been running various ventures and this is to be finished by our ladies.

5: CLEARLY DISCUSS SOME IMPORTANT “BEINGS” AND DOINGS” IN CAPABILITILY TO FUNCTION

Capability to function then finally refers to a person’s set of achievable functioning vectors. It is the ultimate measure of well-being for a person in Sen’s framework as it reflects the substantive (positive) freedoms and opportunities an individual enjoys in life.
In Amartya Sen’s capability approach development is seen as a process of enhancing people’s capabilities by expanding their real freedoms. The capability to function effectively is what matters the most and it goes well beyond availability of commodities. In the capability approach, poverty is a situation where people lack the most basic capabilities to lead a reasonable life. In other words, poverty forces the poor to lead a constricted life. Higher constriction means reduced capabilities — it leads to higher levels of misery.

6: DISCUSS THE CORE VALUES OF DEVELOPMENT WITH RELEVANT EXAMPLES

As per Prof. Goulet, no less than three essential parts as fundamental beliefs ought to act as a reasonable premise and viable rules for understanding the “internal” importance of improvement. These guiding principle – food, confidence, and opportunity – address shared objectives looked for by all people and social orders’? They connect with central human necessities that track down their demeanor in practically all social orders and societies consistently.
Three guiding principle act as norms of advancement.
A: Food. This alludes to the ability to meet essential necessities like food, attire, and sanctuary. Absence of even one of these implies that an individual’s life isn’t moderate. A nation creates in the event that its residents have enough or all that could possibly be needed for their fundamental necessities, there is development of pay, outrageous neediness is tended to, and there is balance among citizenry.
B: Confidence. The personal satisfaction is great when there is regard, trust, and self-esteem. Every individual has needs which can be accomplished through the presence of regard, respect, and a decent standing in the public eye. An individual’s worth as an individual can’t just be estimated by the responsibility for things which is many times given accentuation by moderate entrepreneur nations like the US. In the Philippines, material abundance isn’t the main significant thing however the affection for one’s family, the family’s standing, and an individual’s nobility and confidence. A nation is created on the off chance that this one of a kind need of individuals is tended to.
C: Independence from Subjugation. This opportunity is drawn from freedom from harsh frameworks in the public eye, destitution and misuse, subjugation, obliviousness, and the shortfall of the opportunity to pick one’s way of life or religion. This opportunity should be visible in the scope of decisions in a general public. What is great about improvement isn’t just the delight of being liberated from destitution yet additionally the accessibility of many decisions. By and large, opportunity wins in the event that individuals carry on with an agreeable life, assuming they have the opportunity to pick their religion, to cast a ballot and to offer their viewpoint about organization and administration, and in the event that they appreciate equivalent open doors for schooling and business.

7: SOME SCHOLARS HAVE ARGUED THAT HAPPINESS HAS A DIRECT CORRELATION WITH MORE INCOME WHILE OTHERS DISAGREE WITH ASSERTION

Individuals who accept that the key to a blissful life is reliant straightforwardly on the financial perspectives are to some degree right. Monetary development is a fundamental piece of the sort of everyday routine one needs to experience. They need to gain materialistic labor and products, which without having great monetary development is preposterous. For example, an individual who has a great total assets would constantly need an ever increasing number of resources in their day to day existence. Someone else having an alluring compensation can carry on with a daily existence they have longed for. Individuals make a solid effort to accomplish more, and in the present time, the accomplishment is just estimated by the number of monetary assets one that achieves. Individuals are frequently decided by the individual.

8: DISTINGUISH BETWEEN ECONOMIC GROWTH AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND TELL US WHERE WE ARE CURRENTLY AS A NATION IN TERMS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND ECONOMIC GROWTH

Economic Growth is the positive change in the indicators of economy.
Economic development is the quantitative and qualitative change in an economy

Economic Growth refers to the increment in amount of goods and services produced by an economy.
Economic development refers to the reduction and elimination of poverty, unemployment and inequality with the context of growing economy.

It refers to an increase over time in a country’s real output of goods and services (GNP) or real output per capita income
Economic development includes process and policies by which a country improves the social, economic and political well-being of its people.

Economic growth focuses on production of goods and services.
Economic development focuses on distribution of resources.

Economic growth relates a gradual increase in one of the components of GDP; consumption, government spending, investment or net exports.
Economic development relates to growth of human capital indexes and decrease in inequality.

Economic growth is single dimensional in nature as it only focuses on income of the people.
Economic development is multi-dimensional in nature as it focuses on both income and improvement of living standards of the people.

Economic Growth is the precursor and prerequisite for economic development. It is the subset of economic development.
Economic development comes after economic growth. It is a positive impact of economic growth.

WHERE WE ARE CURRENTLY AS A NATION IN TERMS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT.
Given Nigerians economic structure, population and rate of economic expansion, most people have blamed Nigerians low growth and development on a high population that is large and not very productive. Other has opined that the little growth the country has attained is a direct consequence of a large population.

1. Dudley Seers suggests that development is when a country experiences a reduction or elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment.

Edgar Owens (1987) suggested that development is when there is development of people (human development) and not development of
The questions to ask about a country’s development are therefore: What has been happening to poverty? What has been happening to unemployment? What has been happening to inequality? If all three of these have declined from high levels, then beyond doubt this has been a period of development for the country concerned. If one or two of these central problems have been growing worse, especially if all three have, it would be strange to call the result “development” even if per capita income doubled.”

Since Seers (1969) revolutionary argument, development partners, agencies and institutions have progressively shifted the focus in defining and measuring economic development with several indicators that are designed to capture, in a pragmatic way, improvement in the quality of life, which is the ultimate targets of development policies and programmes. In addition to concerns about poverty, unemployment and inequality which formed the key issues in Seers’ thesis, such key physical quality of life indicators as access to good quality and functional education, efficient, accessible and affordable health care, access to such key infrastructural facilities as good quality roads, electricity, water and sanitation among others have over the years emerged as additional measures/indicators of development. Indeed, according to the World Development Report (WDR 1991): “The challenge of development… is to improve the quality of life…better education, higher standards of health and nutrition, less poverty, a cleaner environment, more equality of opportunity, greater individual freedom, and a richer cultural life.”

2.Economic development
Economic development, including the fairness or equity of vulnerability of constituent populations, is the foundation on which resilience is based. It is the prerequisite for all other adaptive capacities. Economic development is the level and diversity of economic resources, as well as the equitable distribution of resources. The overall level of economic development determines the level of available resources. The diversity of economic resources influences how rapidly the community is able to mobilize in a disaster. If some of the populations in a community or society are vulnerable because of the unfair and inequitable distribution of high-quality resources, then the community or society is also vulnerable to disaster (Norris et al., 2008).

3. Yes I agree. According to Sen, development is enhanced by democracy and the protection of human rights. Such rights, especially freedom of the press, speech, assembly, and so forth increase the likelihood of honest, clean, good government.

He claims that “no famine has ever taken place in the history of the world in a functioning democracy”. This is because democratic governments “have to win elections and face public criticism, and have strong incentive to undertake measures to avert famines and other catastrophes”.

Development is the process of expanding human freedom. It is “the enhancement of freedoms that allow people to lead lives that they have reason to live”. Hence “development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom: poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systemic social deprivation, neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or overactivity of repressive states”.

Sen argues that there are five types of interrelated freedoms, namely, political freedom, economic facilities, social opportunities, transparency and security. The state has a role in supporting freedoms by providing public education, health care, social safety nets, good macroeconomic policies, productivity and protecting the environment.

Freedom implies not just to do something, but the capabilities to make it happen. What people can achieve (their capabilities) is influenced by “economic opportunities, political liberties, social powers, and the enabling condition of good health, basic education, and the encouragement and cultivation of initiatives”. Sen calculates that if women in Asia and North Africa were given the same health care and attention, the world would have 100 million more women.

4. Women are the set of human beings that belongs to the female gender. They play the role of mothers, caretakers in family affairs, farmers, educators, entrepreneurs, teachers, e.t.c. It is historic that women play significant roles in societal development and ensure the stability, progress, and long-term development of nations. Women also play the role of decision-makers in homes. Globally, women contribute immensely to agricultural development, comprising about 43% of the world’s agricultural labor force. In some countries, the number of women involved in the agricultural labor force increases to over 70%. Available records indicate that in Africa alone, 80% of agricultural production comes from small farmers, most of whom are rural women. It is noteworthy that agriculture is the bedrock of national development as the best approach to food security, poverty reduction, job creation, and economic stability.

At home, women, notably mothers, play the role in decision-making about family meal planning and diet. Women also initiate and preserve the nutritional and healthcare programs of children at home. In addition, women are not only caring for their children at home but are also the primary caretakers of both children and elders in every country of the world. International studies indicate that women lead in finding solutions to the problems occasioned by a change of political and economic organizations in countries, thereby helping the family adjust to new realities and challenges. Indeed, women are the initiators who play important role in facilitating changes in family life. The UN Women Watch organization asserts that ” rural women play a key role in supporting their households and communities in achieving food and nutritional security, generating income, and improving rural livelihoods and overall wellbeing.

5. The capability approach is a theoretical framework that entails two normative claims: first, the claim that the freedom to achieve well-being is of primary moral importance and, second, that well-being should be understood in terms of people’s capabilities and functionings. Capabilities are the doings and beings that people can achieve if they so choose — their opportunity to do or be such things as being well-nourished, getting married, being educated, and travelling; functionings are capabilities that have been realized. Whether someone can convert a set of means – resources and public goods – into a functioning (i.e., whether she has a particular capability) crucially depends on certain personal, sociopolitical, and environmental conditions, which, in the capability literature, are called ‘conversion factors.’ Capabilities have also been referred to as real or substantive freedoms as they denote the freedoms that have been cleared of any potential obstacles, in contrast to mere formal rights and freedoms.

Within philosophy, the capability approach has been employed to the development of several conceptual and normative theories within, most prominently, development ethics, political philosophy, public health ethics, environmental ethics and climate justice, and philosophy of education.

6. Sustenance:
The life-sustaining basic human needs include food, shelter, health and protection. When any one of these is absent or in critically short supply, a condition of absolute “underdevelopment” exists.

Self-esteem:
A second universal component of good life is self- esteem- a sense of worth and self-respect- of not being used as a tool by others for their own ends. Due to the significance attached to material values in developed nations, worthiness and esteem are now-a-days increasingly conferred only on countries that possess economic wealth and technological power- those that have developed
Now-a-days the Third World seeks development in order to gain the esteem which is denied to societies living in a state of disgraceful “underdevelopment.” … Development is legitimized as a goal because it is an important, perhaps even an indispensable, way of gaining esteem.6

Freedom from Servitude:

Arthur Lewis stressed the relationship between economic growth and freedom from servitude when he concluded that “the advantage of economic growth is not that wealth increases happiness, but that it increases the range of human choice.” Wealth can enable a person to gain greater control over nature and his physical environment than they would have if they remained poor.

It also gives them the freedom to choose greater leisure. The concept of human freedom should encompass various components of political freedom, freedom of expression, political participation and equality of opportunity.

7. Does having more money make someone feel happier? The answer to this longstanding question has implications for how individuals live their lives and societies are structured. It is often assumed that more income brings more happiness (with happiness broadly defined herein as hedonic feelings, while recognizing closely related constructs, including satisfaction and eudaimonia; Tiberius, 2006; Angner, 2010; Dolan and Kudrna, 2016; Sunstein, 2021). In many aspects of policy, upward income mobility is encouraged, and poverty can result in exclusion, stigmatization, and discrimination by institutions and members of the public. More income provides people with opportunities and, sometimes, capabilities to consume more and thus satisfy more of their preferences, meet their desires and obtain more of what they want and need (Harsanyi, 1997; Sen, 1999; Nussbaum, 2008). These are all reasons to assume that higher income will bring greater happiness—or, at least, that low income will bring low happiness.

8. Economic Growth refers to the rise in the value of everything produced in the economy. It implies the yearly increase in the country’s GDP or GNP, in percentage terms. It alludes to a considerable rise in the per-capita national product, over a period, i.e. the growth rate of increase in total output, must be greater than the population growth rate.
Economic Growth is often contrasted with Economic Development, which is defined as the increase in the economic wealth of a country or a particular area, for the welfare of its residents. Here, you should know that economic growth is an essential but not the only condition for economic development.

The economic trend in a country as a whole is the major component of its business environment. An economy whose growth rate is high provides a promising business prospect and thus builds business confidence. In this post, you will find all the substantial differences between these two

IHEDURU CHIGOZIE OSITA
2019/241534
ihed2044@gmail.com

1. Professor Dudley Seers argues that development is about outcomes ie development occurs with the reduction and elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment within a growing economy. Discuss

Before Dudley Seer propounded his theory of development, many economists believed that development is achieved when a country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) grows at 5% to 7% above and the increases are sustained over a long period of time. They believed that when such increases occurred, then that country has achieved development. To them, development was based mainly on material increase. Also, it was believed that economic development is achieved when there is a change in the structure of production and employment so that the share of agriculture in GDP and in employment declines, while that of manufacturing and services increases. These believe made development economists to focus more on industrialization at the expense of agriculture (Todaro & Smith, 2006). Based on the believe, many developing countries in the 1960s and 1970s experienced increased in their Gross Domestic Product but the general levels of living of the masses remained unchanged. That is, the increases in growth (GDP) do not have any direct effect on quality of life of the people.

As discussed by Dudley Seers, the purpose of development is to reduce poverty, inequality, and unemployment. To Seers, development involves reducing deprivation or broadening choice. It represents a multidimensional view of poverty that includes, hunger, illiteracy, illness and poor health, powerlessness, voicelessness, insecurity, humiliation and lack of access to basic infrastructures.

2. Apart from a rise in output, Economic Development involves changes in composition of output, shift in the allocation of productive resources, and elimination or reduction of poverty, inequalities and unemployment. Clearly discuss the above assertion.

The disparity in the distribution of household incomes has been rising over the past three decades in a vast majority of OECD countries and such long-term trend was interrupted only temporarily in the first years of the Great Recession. Addressing these trends has moved to the top of the policy agenda in many countries. This is partly due to worries that a persistently unbalanced sharing of the growth dividend will result in social resentment, fuelling populist and protectionist sentiments, and leading to political instability. Recent discussions, particularly in the US, about increased inequality being one possible cause of the 2008 financial crisis also contributed to its relevance for policymaking.
But another growing reason for the strong interest of policy makers in inequality is concern about whether the cumulatively large and sometimes rapid increase in inequality might have an effect on economic growth and on the pace of exit from the current recession.

3. In the words of Amartya Sen “Development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom, poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systematic social deprivation neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or over activity of repressive states. Do you agree? Explain in details

According to Amartya Sen, development is enhanced by democracy and the protection of human rights. Such rights, especially freedom of the press, speech, assembly, and so forth increase the likelihood of honest, clean, good government.
He claims that “no famine has ever taken place in the history of the world in a functioning democracy”. This is because democratic governments “have to win elections and face public criticism, and have strong incentive to undertake measures to avert famines and other catastrophes”.
Development is the process of expanding human freedom. It is “the enhancement of freedoms that allow people to lead lives that they have reason to live”. Hence “development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom: poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systemic social deprivation, neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or overactivity of repressive states”.

4. Critically discuss the Central Role of Women in the National Development

Women play significant roles in societal development and ensure the stability, progress, and long-term development of nations.

Globally, women contribute immensely to agricultural development, comprising about 43% of the world’s agricultural labor force. In some countries, the number of women involved in the agricultural labor force increases to over 70%. Available records indicate that in Africa alone, 80% of agricultural production comes from small farmers, most of whom are rural women.

At home, women, notably mothers, play the role in decision-making about family meal planning and diet. Women also initiate and preserve the nutritional and healthcare programs of children at home. In addition, women are not only caring for their children at home but are also the primary caretakers of both children and elders in every country of the world.

As educators, the role or contribution of women to society’s transition from pre-literate to the literate period is highly significant. Basic education is key to a nation’s ability to develop and achieve sustainable policies and programs. It is evident that education helps to improve agricultural productivity, enhances the status of girls and women, stabilizes population growth rates, enhances environmental protection and, increases the standard of living.

The role of women as volunteers in local and international organizations for development has global collective recognition.

5. Clearly discuss some Important “Beings” and “Doings” in Capability to Function

The capability approach is a theoretical framework that entails two normative claims: first, the claim that the freedom to achieve well-being is of primary moral importance and, second, that well-being should be understood in terms of people’s capabilities and functionings.

Functionings are ‘doings and beings’, that is, various states of human beings and activities that a person has achieved, such as being well-nourished, getting married, being educated, and travelling, while capabilities are the real, or substantive, opportunity that they have to achieve these doings and beings.

6. Discuss the three Core Values of Development with relevant example

Sustenance: Sustenance is the ability to meet basic needs of people. All people have certain basic needs without which life would be impossible. These basic needs include food, shelter, health, and protection. People should have access to these basic needs.

Self-Esteem: Sense of worth and self-respect and feeling of not being marginalized are extremely important for individual’s well being. All peoples and societies seek some form of self-esteem (identity, dignity, respect, honor etc.). The nature and form of self- esteem may vary from on culture to another and from time to time. Self-esteem may be based on material values: higher income or wealth may be equated with higher worthiness. One may consider individuals worthy based on their intellect or public service.

Freedom from Servitude: Human freedom, the ability to choose, is essential for the well being of individuals. Freedom involves an expanded range of choices for societies: economic and political. It involves freedom from bondage, serfdom, and other exploitative economic, social, and political relationships.

7. Some scholars have argued that happiness has a direct correlation with more income while others disagree with the assertion.

Almost all studies in the sizable literature on income and well-being examine evaluative well-being. Evaluative well-being is a person’s summary evaluation of their life, such as overall life satisfaction. These studies show that people with larger incomes tend to report greater evaluative well-being

The original 2010 study, conducted by Princeton University researchers, found that people’s day-to-day happiness increases with income up to about $75,000 at which point it tops out. So according to this study, someone who makes $100,000 a year is not happier on a day-to-day level than someone making $75,000.

One of the most well-known findings in the economic study of happiness is that, on average, happiness increases with income, but at a certain point diminishing returns set in. In other words, money can only buy a fixed level of happiness, after which extra income and wealth doesn’t make much difference.

8. Distinguish between Economic Growth and Economic Development and tell us where we are currently as a nation in terms of growth and development.

Economic growth is considered to be anincrease in the production of goods and services by per person in a population, compared from one time period to another. An increase in capital goods, labour forces, new territories, technology, and human capital can also contribute to economic growth.
Economic growth is commonly measured by the increase in the average market value of additional goods and services produced, using GDP

Economic development is the increase in the standard of living from a low-income economy to a high-income economy. It considers factors such as health, education, working conditions, domestic and international policies, and market conditions with a focus on improving conditions in developing countries.
The HDI(Human Development Index) is used to measure a nation’s economic development. The HDI tracks the course of development of countries over periods of time.

Nigeria’s emergence from recession remains slow: real GDP grew by 1.9 percent in 2018. While this was above the 0.8 percent growth of 2017, it was below the population growth rate, government projections and pre-recession levels.

While Nigeria has made some progress in socio-economic terms in recent years, its human capital development ranked 150 of 157 countries in the World Bank’s 2020 Human Capital Index.

NAME: ELEKWACHI JOHN UDOCHUKWU
REG NUMBER: 2019/241890
DEPARTMENT: (ECONOMICS/PHILOSOPHY)
Level: 300 level

1 According to Dudley Seers, a nation is said to be developing when its levels of unemployment, inequality, and poverty are reduced or eliminated.
Edgar Owens (1987) suggested that development is when there is development of people (human development) and not development of things.
Many economists were aware of Dudley Seer’s theory of development before it was released.
According to this theory, development occurs when a nation’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) grows at a rate of 5% to 7% above average and the increases are maintained over an extended period of time.
They thought that a country had reached development when such increases took place.
For them, growth was mostly based on material expansion. Additionally, the notion that economic development is attained when there is a shift in the composition of production and employment such that manufacturing and services account for an increasing share of GDP and employment, while agriculture declines. According to Todaro and Smith (2006), these ideas led development economists to place a greater emphasis on industrialization at the expense of agriculture. According to the theory, although many developing nations saw an increase in their GDP in the 1960s and 1970s, the average standard of living for the vast majority of people stayed the same.
That is, improvements in growth (GDP) have no direct impact on people’s quality of life.
These caused numerous economists to think twice about what progress

2. Apart from a rise in output, Economic Development involves changes in composition of output, shift in the allocation of productive resources, and elimination or reduction of poverty, inequalities and unemployment. Clearly discuss the above assertion.
Economic growth is the most powerful instrument for reducing poverty and improving the quality of life in developing countries. Both cross-country research and country case studies provide overwhelming evidence that rapid and sustained growth is critical to making faster progress towards the Millennium Development Goals – and not just the first goal of halving the global proportion of people living on less than $1 a day.
Growth can generate virtuous circles of prosperity and opportunity. Strong growth and employment opportunities improve incentives for parents to invest in their children’s education by sending them to school. This may lead to the emergence of a strong and
growing group of entrepreneurs, which should generate pressure for improved governance. Strong economic growth therefore advances human development, which,
in turn, promotes economic growth.
But under different conditions, similar rates of growth can have very different effects on poverty, the employment prospects of the poor and broader indicators of human development. The extent to which growth reduces poverty depends on the degree to which the poor participate in the growth process and share in its proceeds. Thus, both the pace and pattern of growth matter for reducing poverty.
A successful strategy of poverty reduction must have at its core measures to promote rapid and sustained economic growth. The challenge for policy is to combine growthpromoting policies with policies that allow the poor to participate fully in the opportunities unleashed and so contribute to that growth. This includes policies to make labour markets work better, remove gender inequalities and increase financial inclusion.
Asian countries are increasingly tackling this agenda of ‘inclusive growth’. India’s most recent development plan has two main objectives: raising economic growth and making growth more inclusive, policy mirrored elsewhere in South Asia and Africa.

3. In the words of Amartya Sen “Development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom, poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systematic social deprivation neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or over activity of repressive states.
Yes,
Development means freedom, according to Amartya Sen, perhaps the greatest development thinker of our times.
Over the centuries, there have been very many theories of development. According to 1998 Nobel prize winner, Amartya Sen, freedom is both the primary objective of development, and the principal means of development. The human being is an engine of change.
Sen is both the first Indian and the first Asian to win the Nobel prize for economics. In winning the Nobel prize, Sen was praised by the Swedish Royal Academy of Sciences “for his contributions to welfare economics” and for restoring “an ethical dimension” to the discussion of vital economic problems.

According to Sen, development is enhanced by democracy and the protection of human rights. Such rights, especially freedom of the press, speech, assembly, and so forth increase the likelihood of honest, clean, good government.
He claims that “no famine has ever taken place in the history of the world in a functioning democracy”. This is because democratic governments “have to win elections and face public criticism, and have strong incentive to undertake measures to avert famines and other catastrophes”.

4. Critically discuss the Central Role of Women in the National Development
Women are the set of human beings that belongs to the female gender. They play the role of mothers, caretakers in family affairs, farmers, educators, entrepreneurs, teachers, e.t.c. It is historic that women play significant roles in societal development and ensure the stability, progress, and long-term development of nations. Women also play the role of decision-makers in homes. Globally, women contribute immensely to agricultural development, comprising about 43% of the world’s agricultural labor force. In some countries, the number of women involved in the agricultural labor force increases to over 70%. Available records indicate that in Africa alone, 80% of agricultural production comes from small farmers, most of whom are rural women. It is noteworthy that agriculture is the bedrock of national development as the best approach to food security, poverty reduction, job creation, and economic stability.

5. Clearly discuss some Important “Beings” and “Doings” in Capability to Function
Sen contends that a person’s ability to do and be things determines how happy they are.
He therefore concentrated on a more direct topic, such as the capacities and human functionings by which the quality of life is measured. In other words, a person’s talents provide a perspective from which his benefits and drawbacks may be fairly evaluated, which makes it extremely ideal for studying poverty.
Functionings: Functionings are the true “doings and beings” of individuals. They are human accomplishments; they are “doings” or “beings.” All of these accomplishments—doings and beings—add value to life when considered collectively. The functions could be having access to food and housing, being able to work and rest, being literate or healthy, belonging to a community or group, being respected, etc.

6. Discuss the three Core Values of Development with relevant example:
i. Sustenance:
A subsistence economy is an economy directed to basic subsistence (the provision of food, clothing, shelter) rather than to the market. Henceforth, “subsistence” is understood as supporting oneself at a minimum level. The life-sustaining basic human needs include food, shelter, health and protection. When any one of these is absent or in critically short supply, a condition of absolute “underdevelopment” exists.

ii. Self-esteem – To be a person: Confidence in one’s own worth or abilities; self-respect. “assertiveness training for those with low self-esteem” . A second universal component of good life is self- esteem- a sense of worth and self-respect- of not being used as a tool by others for their own ends. Due to the significance attached to material values in developed nations, worthiness and esteem are now-a-days increasingly conferred only on countries that possess economic wealth and technological power- those that have developed
III. Freedom from servitude, to be able to Choose: Arthur Lewis stressed the relationship between economic growth and freedom from servitude when he concluded that “the advantage of economic growth is not that wealth increases happiness, but that it increases the range of human choice.” Wealth can enable a person to gain greater control over nature and his physical environment than they would have if they ppremained poor.
It also gives them the freedom to choose greater leisure. The concept of human freedom should encompass various components of political freedom, freedom of expression, political participation and equality of opportunity.

7. Some scholars have argued that happiness has a direct correlation with
more income while others disagree with the assertion.
“Happiness improves with income, to a degree,” is how I would sum it up.
One of the most well-known conclusions from the economic study of happiness is that while overall pleasure rises with income, diminishing returns begin to take effect after a certain point.
In other words, after a certain point, wealth and further income have little impact on one’s degree of happiness.
After this, happiness presumably depends on other factors, such as health, free time, the caliber of friendships, and close family, rather than only income generating.
Obi cubana, the man in Nigeria, is just one example. Although having money helps build up one’s life, family and friends are also a major source of happiness for obi cubana today.

8)Distinguish between Economic Growth and Economic Development and tell us where we are currently as a nation in terms of growth and
development.
Economic Growth and Economic Development.
1) Economic growth is the improvement in economic indices.
Economic development is the transformation in an economy on both a quantitative and qualitative level.
2) The increase in the volume of products and services produced by an economy is referred to as economic growth.
In the context of an expanding economy, economic development refers to the reduction and abolition of poverty, unemployment, and inequality.
3) Increases in real national income and national output are indicative of economic growth.
Improvements in life expectancy, health care, and other aspects of living standards are examples of economic progress.
4) Economic growth is one-dimensional in nature because it only concentrates on people’s income.
Due to its dual focus on increasing income and enhancing peoples’ quality of living, economic growth is multidimensional in nature.

Nigeria as a nation is still experiencing economic growth and not development because the necessary conditions for growth have not yet been established. Additionally, the nation continues to struggle with economic instability, inflation and deflation, and political unrest.

1. True development happens when poverty unemployment and inequality are reduced it will no doubt increase the well-being and quality of life of a nation’s citizen. Poverty is the serious denial of basic human needs which includes food, shelter, safe drinking water, health, education . Absolute poverty does not depend only on income but also affect human life. Nigeria is one largest populated country living in extreme poverty despite the rapid growth experienced in Nigeria, the number of people going into poverty keeps increasing over the years. poverty affect the the development of country in terms of long and healthy life access to knowledge and a decent standard of living.
ii. Inequality is the state of not being equal in terms of status, gender, rights and opportunities. Development theory is concerned with inequalities in wealth/ income, education, health and nutrition. Nigeria is Africa’s largest economy yet inequality has reached to the extreme level. When it comes to distribution of jobs in Nigeria there is great inequality like the children of the rich get lucrative white-collar job even in the armed forces of Nigeria. Children of the rich gets more higher positions. The rich send their kids to the best school even to the best hospitals both within Nigeria or abroad while the poor children are sent to public schools given little or no infrastructures, also has less medical care.poverty and inequality in Nigeria and not due to lack of resources but due to ill use, mis allocation and misappropriation of such resources.
III. Unemployment is defined as when people of working class age are not employed also seeking for employment during a particular time. The rate of unemployment in Nigeria especially among the youth is very Alarming. The Federal government implement many programs to eradicate unemployment and poverty but unemployment and poverty is still increasing. Those figures of unemployment shows that Nigeria as a nation is not experiencing development. Therefore Dudley Seers argues about development takes place when there is a decrease or lower rates of poverty, inequality and unemployment.

2. Economic development are policies that aim to improve the economic well-being and quality of life for the country. economic development helps in creating more job opportunities for the country, maintaining businesses and creating opportunity for new ones. It leads to a better quality life, makes productive use of property, promotes a country’s assets, getting more skilled workers living in a country for different job opportunities. It gives room for low-income national economies to be transformed into modern industrial economies, it also involves qualitative and quantitative improvements, it occurs when a country’s per capita income increases. it is made for developing countries. It reduces poverty and helps in people’s standard of living.

3. Sens argues for the need for an expanded definition of development to include real human freedom, economic facilities, social opportunities, transparency, political freedom and protective security. Sen stressed on the need to abolish unfreedom such as over activity of
systematic social deprivation, intolerance, poor economic opportunities etc. Women have important roles to play in the development of a nation. That women have harder body to survive in a poor country or poor society than men. The world should not neglect the female children, maternal mortality and female healthcare. Development hinges on women’s earning power, economic role outside the family, education and property rights. women’s economic participation leads to her enhance status of women as well as social change. Sen argues that the number of men should exceed the amount of food they require or bring to the table. The human freedom is both the primary end objective and the principle means of development. Sen concludes the discussion with the fact that is our responsibility to recognise the shared value or humanity among Us. Human freedom depends on personal, social and environmental situations. So I agree with Sen theory or treaties about development.

4. Women are the fundamental human reservoir of every society as they control most of the non-monetary economy such as agriculture, bearing of children, domestic labour etc. and also play monetary roles, women are being considered as important personnel’s whether in developed or developing country and are concerned the pillar of both political and economic alliance. women have made lots of contributions in agriculture , community development and physical development. Nigerian women have made some appreciable impact in their contribution to the development of Nigerian nation. Nigerian women have as played great role in political field they participated in politics and government through the institution of female cheifs the authority of first daughters, the age grade and government. women break into occupation that we are hiltherto monopolized by men. also into professional areas such as medicine, accountancy, engineering, decision-making and others.

5. The importance to “doings” and “beings” in capability to function as it focuses exclusively on subjective well-being or the availability of means to The Good Life a person’s capability to live a good life is defined in terms of the set of valuable “beings” and “doings” like being in good health or having loving relationship with others to which they have real access. Poverty is the deprivation to live a good life and development is the capability to live a good life, it’s reflect the positive freedoms and opportunities as individual and enjoy in life. It gives us a more accurate picture of the quality of people’s lives and overall what they are able to do given their access to resources. it helps students to make connections in their learning within and across subjects in a wide range of contexts. It enables students to understand themselves and others manage their relationships, lives and works.

6. Sustenance – refers to the basic needs of a human life of a human being without which survival would not be possible. those needs include food, shelter, security and good health. when sustenance is absence or short supply “underdevelopment” occurs.
ii. Self-esteem – is a sense of worth and self-respect of not being used as a tool by others for their own ends. to promote self-esteem or self-worth development must be spread across the whole economy, the under development of an economy can be a burden on people’s self-esteem.
iii. freedom – freedom from servitude, discrimination, oppressive beliefs and practices. everybody must be free to choose and have control over their own life and actions human freedom should encompass various components of political freedom, freedom of expression, political participation and equal opportunities .
sustenance examples are availability of food, shelter, security and good health
Freedom examples are better standard of living and quality life to everyone, choice and equal opportunity in social, legal, cultural and political participation.

7. People with higher incomes will be more satisfied with their lives, people get more happiness from buying material things through their higher incomes. people with higher incomes tend to have a less stressful life while others scholars disagree is because striving for personal gains or higher income can damage connections with others and because happiness is usually defined in terms of personal positive feelings. it can only make you to focus on only means of higher-income forgetting that there are many other things to be happy for except money. having enough income to afford your needs and wants and that of people around you is a source of happiness.

8a. Difference between economic growth and economic development are:
1. Economic growth means an increase in real national income and national output..
Economic development it refers to the improvement in the quality of life and living standard .
2.Economic growth is the positive change in the indicators of economy.
Economic development focuses on distribution of resources also concerned about the happiness of the public Life.
3. Economic growth refers to the increments in the amount of goods and services produced by an economy .
Economic development is a brother concept than that of economic growth and is meant for developing economies.
4. Economic growth is a single dimensional in nature as it only focuses on income of the people. It is a broader concept than that of economic development.
Economic development it is multi-dimensional in nature as it focuses on both income and improvement of living standard of the people. 5.Economic growth is quantitative changes and short-term periods
Economic development are quantitative as well as qualitative changes also long-term process.
6. Economic growth involved GDP, GNP. it is also an automatic process that may or may not require intervention from government.
Economic development requires intervention from the government as all the developmental processes are formed by the government.

8b. Economic development and growth of Nigeria currently can be stated as:
Nigeria economic growth recovered but macroeconomic stability weakened, there is a depreciating currency, trade restrictions and inflation and oil production has fallen to historic lows. There is inequality in terms of income and opportunities, there is a high rate of unemployment, high inflation has also taken a toll on household’s welfare and high prices in goods and services. Nigeria has pushed additional 8 million people into poverty. Nigeria is in a challenging and deteriorating economic situation with lowered growth projections. inflation in Nigeria is one of the highest in the world before the war in Ukraine. policy reforms are available to help the country overcome the current challenges and set the foundation’s for rising to his potentials. Nigeria bank financing are diminishing in the operational sector and also increase VAT are placed on businesses, offices and other working sector in Nigeria. Nigeria import more than they export leading to poor economic growth.

1.Dudley seers suggest that development is when a country experience a reduction or elimination of poverty and unemployment that development means creating the conditions for the realization of human personality .
2.Economics development changes income inequality like as income level increases ,human capital and inequality tends to impede economic growth by affecting human capital .
3.yes I do agree because development should be judged by its impact on people when the basic concern of human development is our capacity to lead the kind of lives we have reason to value sustenance,freedom and self esteem.
4. The role: promoting of social and national integration 2.developing of Human Resources 3.developing of human talent and virtues 4.increasing productivity and 5.respect of other.
5.process and human factors are important to being in capacity in function.
6.i.sustenance ii freedom iii self esteem
Sustenance is the ability to meet basic needs of people
Freedom is the ability to be loose from a certain bond
Self esteem is the quality of life is good when there is respect trust and self values.
7.Evaluation well being is a person summary evaluation of their life such as overall life satisfaction studies have made known that people with larger incomes tends to report greater evaluation well being.
8.Economics growth is the increasing of real national income or national output
Economics development means improvement in the quality of life and standard of living which includes economics growth
Economics development causes economics growth in the long and short run and currently we are still in the economics growth in Nigeria.

1.study analyses the Dudley Seer’s theory of development on the Nigeria economy. Before the emergence of Seer’s theory, there was a general believe amongst economists that development occurred when a country has a sustained economic growth in terms of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Many less developed countries including Nigeria experienced continues economic growth over the years but the such growth does not have a positive reflection in the lives of the people in terms of quality of life. Seer shifted away from such believes and propounded his theory of development with emphasis on poverty, inequality and unemployment. Thus, he used three indicators which are poverty, inequality and unemployment to cement his argument. That if these indicators are falling then that country is experiencing development but if not, they are not experiencing development. This study thus used these indicators to critically assess the Nigeria development situation. It was discovered that all, the three indicators were all increasing instead of decreasing as Seer propounded. The study recommends that the Nigeria government should provide loans to the rural areas for investment into the agricultural sector. Government should provide entrepreneurship program to the urban youth to tackle poverty. Also, taxing policy should be made to tax the poor more to provide infrastructures to the citizens. Investment in child’s education and also invest in health.

2: Development is said to be more than raising productivity level but further involves total reduction or poverty and unemployment because it’s said the development is not possible without growth but growth is possible without development stating that in order achieve development Growth and
Employment mu6hst be achieved.

3.Amartya Sen is an Indian Economist and is one of the chief architects of postcolonial development theory. In his magnum opus, Development as Freedom, Mr. Sen lays out his views on development and what nourishes it globally. He presciently postulates that we live in a world of unprecedented opulence, of a kind that would have been hard to imagine a century or two ago – and this observation sets the stage for his optimistic outlook that transcends any ideology.Mr. Sen rightfully notes that there have been remarkable changes beyond the economic sphere. For instance, the twentieth century has established democratic and participatory governance as the preeminent model of political organization. As many political scientists from Fukuyama to Huntington note, concepts of human rights and political liberty are very much a part of the prevailing rhetoric in the late 20th century.
There are two worlds unfolding before our eyes, according to Mr. Sen. On the one hand, people live much longer, on the average, than before. Also, the different regions of the globe are now more closely linked than they have ever been. Our worlds and civilizations are linked by the fields of trade, commerce, communication, and interactive ideas.
Mr. Sen rightfully claims that our world is animated by remarkable deprivation, destitution, and oppression. There are many new problems as well as old ones, including the persistence of poverty and unfulfilled elementary needs, the occurrence of famines and widespread hunger, violations of elementary political freedoms as well as of basic liberties, extensive neglect of the interests and agency of women, and worsening threats to our environment and to the sustainability of our economic and social lives. In this passionate passage, Mr. Sen is identifying the challenges of the 20th century and beyond.
The contrast between the virtues and ills of our globalized world that Mr. Sen so eloquently postulates can help us as the reader feel both optimistic and concerned about the future. Thankfully, Mr. Sen begins to identify what makes our societies flourish and how we can best remedy human suffering. His prescient and nuanced observations can be used for policy makers to enhance development and democracy around the global. Mr. Sen’s optimistic approach is refreshing and unique in the field of post-colonial development studies, as his observations can be more easily translated into public policy. To illustrate Mr. Sen’s optimistic and practical approach to development studies, he emphasizes that overcoming humanities problems is a central part of the exercise of development. He notes that we must recognize the role of freedom in countering the challenges of our world and ultimately, individual agency is central to addressing societies depravations. To counter the problems that we face as a civilization, we must see individual freedom as a social commitment, Sen claims. This what he fundamentally seeks to examine in his opus. Central to Mr. Sen’s thesis is this brilliant and scalable idea that development consists of the removal of various types of unfreedom that leave people with little choice and little opportunity of exercising their reasoned agency. The removal of substantial unfreedom that Mr. Sen advocates for can help nourish malnourished societies the fruits of democracy and economic development.
Mr. Sen then further elaborates by emphasizing the intrinsic importance of human freedom, in general, as the preeminent objective of development. The linkages between different types of freedoms are empirical and casual, rather than constitutive and compositional. For instance, there is strong evidence that economic and political freedom help to reinforce one another, according to Mr. Sen.

4.Women are the set of human beings that belongs to the female gender. They play the role of mothers, caretakers in family affairs, farmers, educators, entrepreneurs, teachers, e.t.c. It is historic that women play significant roles in societal development and ensure the stability, progress, and long-term development of nations. Women also play the role of decision-makers in homes. Globally, women contribute immensely to agricultural development, comprising about 43% of the world’s agricultural labor force. In some countries, the number of women involved in the agricultural labor force increases to over 70%. Available records indicate that in Africa alone, 80% of agricultural production comes from small farmers, most of whom are rural women. It is noteworthy that agriculture is the bedrock of national development as the best approach to food security, poverty reduction, job creation, and economic stability.
At home, women, notably mothers, play the role in decision-making about family meal planning and diet. Women also initiate and preserve the nutritional and healthcare programs of children at home. In addition, women are not only caring for their children at home but are also the primary caretakers of both children and elders in every country of the world. International studies indicate that women lead in finding solutions to the problems occasioned by a change of political and economic organizations in countries, thereby helping the family adjust to new realities and challenges. Indeed, women are the initiators who play important role in facilitating changes in family life. The UN Women Watch organization asserts that ” rural women play a key role in supporting their households and communities in achieving food and nutritional security, generating income, and improving rural livelihoods and overall wellbeing. As educators, the role or contribution of women to society’s transition from pre-literate to the literate period is highly significant. Basic education is key to a nation’s ability to develop and achieve sustainable policies and programs. It is evident that education helps to improve agricultural productivity, enhances the status of girls and women, stabilizes population growth rates, enhances environmental protection and, increases the standard of living. It is the mother at home who most often urges children of both genders to attend and stay in school. The role of women is at the front end of the chain of improvement, leading to the family and the community’s long term capacity.
The role of women in providing an improved and sustainable workforce is also significant and exciting. The women’s share of the global workforce is about 45.5%. Women’s formal and informal labor can transform a community from a relatively autonomous society to a participant in the national economy. It is obvious that despite the cultural, social, and political setbacks of women, small businesses controlled by women in rural communities are not only extending beyond family lifelines but can also form a networked economic foundation for future generations. The role of women in the urban and rural workforce has expanded greatly in recent times.
The theme for International Women’s Day 2019 “Think Equal, Build Smart, Innovate for Change”, was chosen to identify innovative ways to advance gender equality and the empowerment of women, accelerating the 2030 agenda, which is ” Building Momentum for the Effective Implementation of the New U.N Sustainable Development Goals.
Although women are still lagging behind men worldwide, the historic and current role of women is indisputable. Michelle Bachelet, the Under-Secretary-General and Executive Director of UN Women notes that “when women are empowered and can claim their rights and have access to land, leadership, opportunities and choices, economic growth, food security are enhanced and developmental prospects are improved for current and future generations. The role of women as volunteers in local and international organizations for development has global collective recognition. The global Volunteers Community Development work in host countries worldwide strengthens women’s and children’s capacity and supports their sustained health and development. Under the development and direction of local leaders, women volunteers help ensure academic accessibility, foster parental involvement, offer psycho-social support, provide nutrition and health education, fund girls’ scholarships, construct schools and educate children and women through programmed extension works.
Some of the notable women achievers in the world include Jane Austen(1775-1817); Anne Frank(1929-1945); Maya Angelou(1928-2014); Queen Elizabeth (1533-1603); Catherine the Great(1729-1796); Rosa Parks(1913-2005)and; Malala Yousafzai(1997 to date).
5.Capabilities are what a person is able to do or to be; functionings are those capabilities that are realized. Thus, functionings are ‘beings’ and ‘doings’. Examples of the former (the ‘beings’) are being well-nourished, being undernourished, being housed in a pleasantly warm but not excessively hot house, being educated, being illiterate, being part of a supportive social network, being part of a criminal network, and being depressed. Examples of the ‘doings’ are travelling, working, taking part in social events, caring for a child, voting in an election, taking part in a public debate, taking drugs, killing animals, eating animals, donating money to charity, consuming lots of fuel to heat one’s house.
Capabilities are a person’s real freedoms or opportunities to achieve functionings. For example, while travelling is a functioning, the real opportunity to travel is the corresponding capability. The distinction between functionings and capabilities is between the realized and the effectively possible, in other words, between achievements, on the one hand, and freedoms or opportunities, on the other.
Observations
From these examples we can draw a couple of observations. First, these examples indicate that many features of a person could be described either as a being or as a doing: we can say that a person is housed in a pleasantly warm house, or that this person does consume lots of energy to keep her house warm. Yet other functionings are much more straightforwardly described as either a being or a doing, for example ‘being healthy’ or ‘killing animals’.
Second, some functionings are very closely related to resource-holding or consumption. One main difference would be that in the case of functionings we have some information on the reason for the consumption, information on why consumption takes place. Consuming fuel comes very close to simply a category of spending, and hence a regular notion in consumer theory; what is added by considering this act from a capability lens is that we know why the fuel is consumed – namely to keep one’s house warm.
The third observation is that the notion of ‘functionings’ is a conceptual category that is in itself morally neutral. Functionings can be univocally good (e.g. being in good health) or univocally bad (e.g. being raped). But the goodness or badness of various other functionings may not be so straightforwardly determined, but rather depend on the context and/or the normative theory which we endorse. For example, is the child care of a mother who is caring full-time for her child a valuable functioning or not? A conservative-communitarian view [accounts which endorse ideals of ‘traditional’ motherhood] will most likely mark this as a valuable functioning, whereas a feminist-liberal theory [accounts stressing individual freedom and the unfairness of traditional gender norms] will only do so if the care work is the result of an autonomous choice made against a background of equal opportunities and fair support for those who have duties to care for dependents.

6.The current approach to development owes a great deal to the writings and views of Noble Laureate Dr. Amartaya Sen. As Sen put it, “Economic growth cannot be sensibly treated as an end in itself. Development has to be more concerned with enhancing the lives we lead and the freedoms we enjoy.” This new approach is popularly known as Sen’s Capabilities Approach. According to this approach, development is not just about increasing the availability of commodities (focus of the per-capita income approach) but expanding the capabilities of individuals to use these commodities and enhancing the freedom of choice of people. Higher income is important an element of one’s well being. But, well being of individuals also depends on their health, education, geographical and social environment, and political system. There are three core values of development: (i) sustenance, (ii) selfesteem, and (iii) freedom. Sustenance: Sustenance is the ability to meet basic needs of people. All people have certain basic needs without which life would be impossible. These basic needs include food, shelter, health, and protection. People should have access to these basic needs. Self-Esteem: Sense of worth and self-respect and feeling of not being marginalized are extremely important for individual’s well being. All peoples and societies seek some form of self-esteem (identity, dignity, respect, honor etc.). The nature and form of selfesteem may vary from on culture to another and from time to time. Self-esteem may be based on material values: higher income or wealth may be equated with higher worthiness. One may consider individuals worthy based on their intellect or public service. Freedom from Servitude: Human freedom, the ability to choose, is essential for the well being of individuals. Freedom involves an expanded range of choices for societies: economic and political. It involves freedom from bondage, serfdom, and other exploitative economic, social, and political relationships. The new view about the development process suggests that one cannot capture the process of development by just per-capita income. It cannot reflect the multidimensional nature of development process. In recent years, a number of different types of measures have been developed to better reflect the multidimensional nature of development process. In next few lectures, we will study extensively some of these new measures. We will see that these measures are much better than per-capita income in reflecting the development process and quality of life. However, these are still evolving and should be taken as work in progress.

7.The quest for individual happiness and a better life for all is an important economic objective in many countries as diverse as South Africa and France or Zimbabwe and Sweden. All of us want to be happy and lead more fulfilling lives, but not everybody is happy. In former times, happiness was studied mainly by philosophers and psychologists. In recent years, though, happiness has been a topical subject in Economics too. The Economic Journal states: “Economists from different backgrounds …. all believe that happiness must play a more central role in economic science again” (Dixon, 1997:1812). Psychologists are examining happiness through brain signals, personality traits and environmental factors. Philosophers have probed happiness by looking at the maximization of pleasure and the minimization of pain, and virtuous life qualities. Some social scientists consider the effects of friendship, family, communities and groups on happiness. Economists have focused on the influence of consumption, income and economic growth or development on well-being, and are debating whether economic growth can be the sole basis for delivering prosperity, and whether income buys happiness (Dutt & Radcliff, 2009; Jackson, 2010). It is popularly believed that happiness increases when people consume more goods and services with rising income.

Many individuals seek happiness by acquiring wealth, or working long hours to make money, often at the expense of leisure and good social relations. They believe that happiness lies in material possessions, through the satisfaction of material desires. Income is earned primarily through employment. The more income individuals can earn, the more goods and services they can afford to buy and the more satisfaction they can enjoy. In utilitarian theory, more income is better, as it enables individuals to maximize utility through a greater demand for goods and services. At the national level, the aggregate annual value of final goods and services produced in the country is its GDP, which serves as a basis for measuring economic growth.

More goods being produced entails more demand for labour, more employment and more income generation to buy the goods and services produced. As economic growth increases real per capita income, people can afford to buy more goods and services. This, in turn, may result in enhanced well-being and subjective happiness. It is thus no surprise that certain former and current top policy-makers, such as Nicholas Sarkozy and David Cameron, support the measurement of national well-being or happiness rather than GDP (Porter, 2011).

Economic reasoning would suggest a positive relationship between income and happiness. Empirical studies suggest that higher income resulting from high rates of economic growth contribute to poverty alleviation and greater life satisfaction in low income countries (Layard, 2007). Higher income raises the happiness of the poor at a point in time and place. In developed countries, a higher income does not seem to ‘buy’ greater happiness over time, once a threshold level of income is reached (Easterlin, 2001; Frey & Stutzer, 2002; Layard, 2006). As the study of happiness gains a wider perspective, other factors, such as social capital (relationships) and human capital (education) are emerging as key determinants of subjective well-being. Does income contribute to happiness in a developing country? If increases in income and consumption do not make people significantly happier, at least beyond a certain level, what economic choices and environmental conditions do? This exploratory study examines the influence of income and non-income factors on happiness
8:Economic Growth refers to the increase in monetary income or output growth of a state in a particular period of time probably a year or two. Economic development refers to the overall performance of the quality of life in nation which also includes economic growth.
Nigeria as a country is said to be undergoing development and c

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS

AN ASSIGNMENT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILOMENT FOR THE REQUIREMENT OF THE COURSE:

BY
UCHEAMA CALISTA NGOZI
2019/243039

TOPICS:
NO. 1 – PROFESSOR DUDLEY SEERS ARGUES THAT DEVELOPMENT IS ABOUT OUTCOMES IE DEVELOPMENT OCCURS WITH THE REDUCTION AND ELIMINATION OF POVERTY, INEQUALITY AND UNEMPLOYMENT WITHIN A GROWING ECONOMY – DISCUSS

NO. 2 – APART FROM A RISE IN OUTPUT, ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT INVOLVES CHANGES IN COMPOSITION OF OUTPUT, SHIFT IN THE ALLOCATION OF PRODUCTIVE RESOURCES AND ELIMINATION OR REDUCTION OF POVERTY, INEQUALITIES AND UNEMPLOYMENT. CLEARLY DISCUSS THE ABOVE ASSERTION.

NO. 3 – IN THE WORDS OF AMARTYA SEN, “DEVELOPMENT REQUIRES THE REMOVAL OF MAJOR SOURCES OF UNFREEDOM, POVERTY AS WELL AS TYRANNY, POOR ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES AS WELL AS SYSTEMATIC SOCIAL DEPRIVATION NEGLECT OF PUBLIC FACILITIES AS WELL AS INTOLERANCE OR OVER ACTIVITY OF REPRESSIVE STATES. DO YOU AGREE? EXPLAIN IN DETAILS.

NO. 4 – CRITICALLY DISCUSS THE CENTRAL ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

NO. 5 – CLEARLY DISCUSS SOME IMPORTANT “BEINGS” AND “DOINGS” IN CAPABILITY TO FUNCTION

NO. 6 – DISCUSS THE THREE CORE VALUES OF DEVELOPMENT WITH RELEVANT EXAMPLE

NO. 7 – SOME SCHOLARS HAVE ARGUED THAT HAPPINESS HAS A DIRECT CORRELATION WITH MORE INCOME WHILE OTHERS DISAGREE WITH THE ASSERTION.

NO. 8 – DISTINGUISH BETWEEN ECONOMIC GROWTH AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND TELL US WHERE WE ARE CURRENTLY AS A NATION IN TERMS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT.

LECTURER: DR. TONY ORJI

DECEMBER, 2022.
NO. 1
Before Dudley Seer propounded his theory of development, many economists believed that development is achieved when a country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) grows at 5% to 7% above and the increases are sustained over a long period of time. They believed that when such increases occurred, then that country has achieved development. To them, development was based mainly on material increase. Also, it was believed that economic development is achieved when there is a change in the structure of production and employment so that the share of agriculture in GDP and in employment declines, while that of manufacturing and services increases. These believe made development economists to focus more on industrialization at the expense of agriculture (Todaro & Smith, 2006). Based on the believe, many developing countries in the 1960s and 1970s experienced increased in their Gross Domestic Product but the general levels of living of the masses remained unchanged. That is, the increases in growth (GDP) do not have any direct effect on quality of life of the people.
These made many economists to reconsider what development really is and hence glamour for direct attack on widespread of poverty, increasing inequality in income distribution and rising unemployment. To them development should have a “human face”. That is, it should be something that should be seen in the lives of the people. Amongst these economists seeking for a direct approach on development was Dudley Seer, a British Economist who specialized in development economics. He came up with a concept that replaced the growth fetishism with a social development. According to Seer (1969), development is about the level of poverty, unemployment and inequality in a nation. To him, if these three variables have declined over a period of time, then development has occurred for the nation concerned. But if one or two of these variables have been growing worse, especially if all three have, it would be strange to call the result “development, “even if per capita income has soared Seers (1969).

NO. 2
Dudley Seer was a British trained in Cambridge as a development economist. He emphasized on the significance of social development in place of growth fetishism of the neoclassical approach to development. According to Seer (1969), for a nation to know they are really develop or not, they need to ask themselves three basic questions which are: What has been happening to poverty? What has been happening to unemployment? What has been happening to inequality? To Seer, if all three of these are declining, then beyond doubt, that nation is experiencing development. These mean that true development happened when poverty is reduced or eliminated, unemployment declining and the levels of inequality is reducing. Of course, reduction in these three development indicators will in no doubt increases the well been and quality of life of a nation’s citizens. Economic development encompasses progress in providing livelihood on a sustainable basis, access to education and basic healthcare for the majority of the population (Belshaw & Livingstone, 2002).

In the light of the some views of great economist scholars on economic development, it is seen that economic development encompasses changes in composition of output, shift in the allocation of productive resources and elimination or reduction of poverty, inequalities and unemployment because any nation which its rate of unemployment, poverty is on the high increase is seen as a country under development and hence there will be no progress on such a nation.

NO. 3
Development is the process of expanding human freedom. It is “the enhancement of freedoms that allow people to lead lives that they have reason to live”. Hence “development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom: poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systemic social deprivation, neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or over-activity of repressive states”. Development means freedom, according to Amartya Sen, perhaps the greatest development thinker of our times. Over the centuries, there have been very many theories of development. According to 1998 Nobel prize winner, Amartya Sen, freedom is both the primary objective of development, and the principal means of development. The human being is an engine of change. According to Sen, development is enhanced by democracy and the protection of human rights. Such rights, especially freedom of the press, speech, assembly, and so forth increase the likelihood of honest, clean, good government. He claims that “no famine has ever taken place in the history of the world in a functioning democracy”. This is because democratic governments “have to win elections and face public criticism, and have strong incentive to undertake measures to avert famines and other catastrophes”. Sen argues that there are five types of interrelated freedoms, namely, political freedom, economic facilities, social opportunities, transparency and security. The state has a role in supporting freedoms by providing public education, health care, social safety nets, good macroeconomic policies, productivity and protecting the environment. Freedom implies not just to do something, but the capabilities to make it happen. What people can achieve (their capabilities) is influenced by “economic opportunities, political liberties, social powers, and the enabling condition of good health, basic education, and the encouragement and cultivation of initiatives”. Sen calculates that if women in Asia and North Africa were given the same health care and attention, the world would have 100 million more women.

For Sen, “capability deprivation” is a better measure of poverty than low income. While higher GDP does produce improvements in most measures of the quality of life, but there are exceptions. Some places with low GDP/capita like Sri Lanka, China and the India state of Kerala have higher life expectancies and literacy rates than richer countries like Brazil, South Africa and Namibia. And Afro-Americans have a lower life expectancy than males in China and parts of India, although their average real income is far higher. Some see freedom as a potential disturbance to political stability and development. They recommend repressive interventions of the state in stifling liberty, initiative and enterprise, and in crippling the working of the individual agency and cooperative action. Sen highlights “social opportunities” provided by government in the form of schooling, basic health care, basic land reform, and microcredit. These economies were riding on the success of the individual entering the market. While many of these economies were not democratic, some like Korea, Taiwan, Thailand became more democratic over time. Sen has been instrumental in the thinking of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) on human development, including the creation of the human development index (HDI) which is a composite index that measures the average achievement in a country in three basic dimensions of human development: a long and healthy life, as measured by life expectancy at birth; knowledge, as measured by the adult literacy rate and the combined gross enrolment ration for primary, secondary and tertiary schools; and a decent standard of living, as measured by GDP per capita in purchasing power parity US dollars. While the concept of human development is much broader than any single composite index can measure, the HDI offers a powerful alternative to income as a summary measure of human well-being.

Cultural freedoms should be embraced as basic human rights and as necessities for the development of the increasingly diverse societies of the 21st century. All people should have the right to maintain their ethnic, linguistic, and religious identities. The adoption of policies that recognize and protect these identities is the only sustainable approach to development in diverse societies. Economic globalization cannot succeed unless cultural freedoms are also respected and protected, and the xenophobic resistance to cultural diversity should be addressed and overcome. Very few people would quibble with what Sen has to say. In fact, many observers find his views somewhat trite. But the real challenge is how to transform a state that does not accord freedom to its citizens into state that does so. Moreover, freedom deficits still exist in so-called developed countries, and the situation may be moving backwards. Political freedoms are compromised by vested interest politics in the US, and oligarchic powers in Japan and much of Europe. Protectionism of large enterprises, especially in Europe and Japan, limit the economic freedom of small and medium size enterprises. Social opportunities are constrained in most countries as the rich have much better access than the poor to health and education services. Sen does us all a good service in raising the issue of cultural freedoms. Therefore, from the above highlighted points, I strongly agree with Amartya Sen’s assertion.

NO. 4
Women are the set of human beings that belongs to the female gender. They play the role of mothers, caretakers in family affairs, farmers, educators, entrepreneurs, teachers, e.t.c. It is historic that women play significant roles in societal development and ensure the stability, progress, and long-term development of nations. Women also play the role of decision-makers in homes. Globally, women contribute immensely to agricultural development, comprising about 43% of the world’s agricultural labor force. In some countries, the number of women involved in the agricultural labor force increases to over 70%. Available records indicate that in Africa alone, 80% of agricultural production comes from small farmers, most of whom are rural women. It is noteworthy that agriculture is the bedrock of national development as the best approach to food security, poverty reduction, job creation, and economic stability.

At home, women, notably mothers, play the role in decision-making about family meal planning and diet. Women also initiate and preserve the nutritional and healthcare programs of children at home. In addition, women are not only caring for their children at home but are also the primary caretakers of both children and elders in every country of the world. International studies indicate that women lead in finding solutions to the problems occasioned by a change of political and economic organizations in countries, thereby helping the family adjust to new realities and challenges. Indeed, women are the initiators who play important role in facilitating changes in family life. The UN Women Watch organization asserts that ” rural women play a key role in supporting their households and communities in achieving food and nutritional security, generating income, and improving rural livelihoods and overall wellbeing.

As educators, the role or contribution of women to society’s transition from pre-literate to the literate period is highly significant. Basic education is key to a nation’s ability to develop and achieve sustainable policies and programs. It is evident that education helps to improve agricultural productivity, enhances the status of girls and women, stabilizes population growth rates, enhances environmental protection and, increases the standard of living. It is the mother at home who most often urges children of both genders to attend and stay in school. The role of women is at the front end of the chain of improvement, leading to the family and the community’s long term capacity.
The role of women in providing an improved and sustainable workforce is also significant and exciting. The women’s share of the global workforce is about 45.5%. Women’s formal and informal labor can transform a community from a relatively autonomous society to a participant in the national economy. It is obvious that despite the cultural, social, and political setbacks of women, small businesses controlled by women in rural communities are not only extending beyond family lifelines but can also form a networked economic foundation for future generations. The role of women in the urban and rural workforce has expanded greatly in recent times.

Although women are still lagging behind men worldwide but the historic and current role of women is indisputable. Michelle Bachelet, the Under-Secretary-General and Executive Director of UN Women notes that “when women are empowered and can claim their rights and have access to land, leadership, opportunities and choices, economic growth, food security are enhanced and developmental prospects are improved for current and future generations.

The role of women as volunteers in local and international organizations for development has global collective recognition. The global Volunteers Community Development work in host countries worldwide strengthens women’s and children’s capacity and supports their sustained health and development. Under the development and direction of local leaders, women volunteers help ensure academic accessibility, foster parental involvement, offer psycho-social support, provide nutrition and health education, fund girls’ scholarships, construct schools and educate children and women through programmed extension works.

NO. 5
Sen (1999) viewed development as freedom and the capability to function. According to him, for a person to be classified as poor and non-poor, it depends on the person’s capability to function. He defines capability as “the freedom that a person enjoyed in terms of choice to function, given his personal features and his command for commodities”. To Sen, poverty cannot be measured by income as conventionally understood. The important thing is not what a person has, but who he is, or maybe he did, or can do.
Capabilities: Capabilities are the alternative combinations of functionings that are feasible for a person to achieve. Formulations of capability have two parts: functionings and opportunity freedom — the substantive freedom to pursue different functioning combinations. Ultimately, capabilities denote a person’s opportunity and ability to generate valuable outcomes, taking into account relevant personal characteristics and external factors. The important part of this definition is the “freedom to achieve”, because if freedom had only instrumental value (valuable as a means to achieve an end) and no intrinsic value (valuable in and of itself) to a person’s well-being, then the value of the capability set as a whole would simply be defined by the value of a person’s actual combination of functionings. Such a definition would not acknowledge the entirety of what a person is capable of doing and their resulting current state due to the nature of the options available to them. Consequently, the capability set outlined by this approach is not merely concerned with achievements; rather, freedom of choice, in and of itself, is of direct importance to a person’s quality of life. The capability approach is a theoretical framework that entails two normative claims: first, the claim that the freedom to achieve well-being is of primary moral importance and, second, that well-being should be understood in terms of people’s capabilities and functionings. Capabilities are the doings and beings that people can achieve if they so choose — their opportunity to do or be such things as being well-nourished, getting married, being educated, and travelling; functionings are capabilities that have been realized. Whether someone can convert a set of means – resources and public goods – into a functioning (i.e., whether she has a particular capability) crucially depends on certain personal, sociopolitical, and environmental conditions, which, in the capability literature, are called ‘conversion factors.’ Capabilities have also been referred to as real or substantive freedoms as they denote the freedoms that have been cleared of any potential obstacles, in contrast to mere formal rights and freedoms. Within philosophy, the capability approach has been employed to the development of several conceptual and normative theories within, most prominently, development ethics, political philosophy, public health ethics, environmental ethics and climate justice, and philosophy of education. The capability approach (also referred to as the capabilities approach) is a normative approach to human welfare that concentrates on the actual capability of persons to achieve lives they value rather than solely having a right or freedom to do so. It was conceived in the 1980s as an alternative approach to welfare economics. In this approach, Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum combine a range of ideas that were previously excluded from (or inadequately formulated in) traditional approaches to welfare economics. The core focus of the capability approach is improving access to the tools people use to live a fulfilling life. Sen initially argued for five components to assess capability:
The importance of real freedoms in the assessment of a person’s advantage
Individual differences in the ability to transform resources into valuable activities
The multi-variate nature of activities giving rise to wellbeing
A balance of materialistic and nonmaterialistic factors in evaluating human welfare
Concern for the distribution of opportunities within society
The approach emphasizes functional capabilities (“substantive freedoms”, such as the ability to live to old age, engage in economic transactions, or participate in political activities); these are construed in terms of the substantive freedoms people have reason to value, instead of utility (happiness, desire-fulfillment or choice) or access to resources (income, commodities, assets). An approach to wellbeing using utility can be found in utilitarianism, while access to resources is advocated by the Rawlsian approach. Poverty is understood as capability-deprivation. It is noteworthy that proponents emphasize not only how humans function, but their access to capabilities “to achieve outcomes that they value and have reason to value”. Everyone could be deprived of capabilities in many ways, e.g. by ignorance, government oppression, lack of financial resources, or false consciousness.
Functionings: In the most basic sense, functionings consist of “beings and doings”. As a result, living may be seen as a set of interrelated functionings. Essentially, functionings are the states and activities constitutive of a person’s being. Examples of functionings can vary from elementary things, such as being healthy, having a good job, and being safe, to more complex states, such as being happy, having self-respect, and being calm. Moreover, Amartya Sen contends that functionings are crucial to an adequate understanding of the capability approach; capability is conceptualized as a reflection of the freedom to achieve valuable functionings. In other words, functionings are the subjects of the capabilities referred to in the approach: what we are capable, want to be capable, or should be capable to be and/or do. Therefore, a person’s chosen combination of functionings, what they are and do, is part of their overall capability set — the functionings they were able to do. Yet, functionings can also be conceptualized in a way that signifies an individual’s capabilities. Eating, starving, and fasting would all be considered functionings, but the functioning of fasting differs significantly from that of starving because fasting, unlike starving, involves a choice and is understood as choosing to fast despite the presence of other options. Consequently, an understanding of what constitutes functionings is inherently tied together with an understanding of capabilities, as defined by this approach. For example, the difference between fasting and starving, on person’s well-being, is whether the person is choosing not to eat. In this example, the functioning is starving but the capability to obtain an adequate amount of food is the key element in evaluating well-being between individuals in the two states. In sum, having a lifestyle is not the same as choosing it; well-being depends on how that lifestyle came to be. More formally, while the combination of a person’s functionings represents their actual achievements, their capability set represents their opportunity freedom — their freedom to choose between alternative combinations of functionings.

In addition to being the result of capabilities, some functionings are also a prerequisite for capabilities, i.e., there is a dual role of some functionings as both ends and instruments. Examples of functionings that are a direct requirement for capabilities are good nourishment, mental and physical health, and education.

NO. 6
Goulet (1971) contributed to the concepts of development by including
economic and social objectives and the values that society strives for. To him, development is about sustained elevation of an entire society and social system towards a better or more human life. Goulet introduced some values which he termed “three core values of development” which are; sustenance, self-esteem, and freedom from servitude. According to Goulet, these three core values represent common goals that every individual and society sought. The three core values are: (i) sustenance, (ii) self-esteem, and (iii) freedom.
Sustenance: According to Goulet (1971) sustenance is the ability of people to meet the basic needs without which life will be impossible. These needs include food, shelter, health and protection. “Absolute underdevelopment” is when any of these is absent or in critically short supply. Without livelihoods and continuous economic progress, the realization of human potential will be much more difficult.
Self-Esteem: This is the second core value according to Goulet. This value talked about a sense of worth and self-respect, a sense of not being used as a tool by others for their own selfish ends. Goulet believed that development is an important way of gaining self-esteem. Self-esteem is nowadays increasingly conferred only on countries and individuals that possess economic wealth, especially in Nigeria. True development should accord self-esteem to every of her citizen whether they possess economic power or not. Sense of worth and self-respect and feeling of not being marginalized are extremely important for individual’s wellbeing. All peoples and societies seek some form of self-esteem e.g. identity, dignity, respect, honor etc. The nature and form of self-esteem may vary from one culture to another and from time to time. Self-esteem may be based on material values: higher income or wealth may be equated with higher worthiness. One may consider individuals worthy based on their intellect or public service.
Freedom from Servitude (ability to choose): This is the third core value propounded by Goulet. To him, “freedom should be in form of being freeing from alienating material conditions of life and from social servitude to nature, ignorance, bondage, serfdom, exploitative economic, social and political relationships, misery and dogmatic beliefs, especially that poverty is predestination”. To be able to make political and economic choice that does not infringe on someone’s rights.

NO. 7
Are wealthier people happier? This question has been widely asked among economists and socialists in this contemporary society. In general, people firmly believe that if they have more money, their life would be much better. Based on conventional economics, it is believed that money can buy happiness. It is because money can be used to exchange for things to satisfy people’s needs. Likewise, a research study conducted by Schnittker (2008) found that the correlation between income and happiness is always understood in terms of income allowing people to enjoy their life and consume goods to fulfill their needs and increase their well-being. Therefore, money and happiness are highly linked, and usually it is believed that people with higher income are happier than people with lower income; in other words, people with lower income are less happy than people with higher income. There have been extensive researches related to the relationship between income and happiness. Most of the evidence indicates that there is a positive relationship between income and happiness (Schnittker, 2008). Higher incomes and greater happiness are highly linked.

Schnittker (2008) believed that this positive relationship is not surprising, and people usually use socio-economic status as a key element to explain characteristics of quality of life. Based on Diener (1984) Wealthy people would describe their life as good, and tend to satisfy with their life much better than less wealthy people within a given society (as cited in Boyce, Brown, & Moore, 2010). The relationship between income and happiness has been studied by many researchers, especially economists. According to Hernandez-Murillo (2010), Richard Easterlin was the first modern economist who investigated the association between income and happiness (as cited in Como, 2011). Easterlin has done extensive research regarding the income-happiness relationship. Through his investigations, Easterlin (2001) found three empirical regularities to explain his theory. Firstly, at a given time people with higher income are happier than those with less income. Secondly, over the life cycle, the level of happiness remains stable in spite of a growth in the level of income. Finally, people tend to believe that they were less happy in the past and happier in the future.

Easterlin (2001) observed the relationship between income and happiness. He found that in each representative national survey, a statistically significant positive bivariate relationship between income and happiness has always been found (Andrews, 1986, p. xi; Argyle, 1999, pp. 356-7; Diener, 1984, p.553 as cited in Easterlin, 2001). According to the General Social Survey (GSS) in the United States in 1994, a direct question regarding subjective well-being was used to measure happiness: “Taken all together, how would you say things are these days – would you say that you are very happy, pretty happy, or not too happy? (p. 466)”, and it was found that 16% of people in the lowest income category and 44% of people in the highest income one reported very happy (cited in Easterlin 2001). By computing the mean of the happiness rating on the scale “Very happy (4)”, “Pretty happy (2)”, and “Not to happy (0)”, Easterlin (2001) found that the average point of happiness varies according to the level income, ranging from a low point of 1.8 to a high point of 2.8. Therefore, even though it has been proved that there is a positive relationship between income and happiness, the relationship between the two variables is often weak (Howell & Howell, 2008 cited in Boyce et al, 2010; Easterlin, 2001). This would mean wealthier people are happier, but not very much than less wealthy people at a point in time. Easterlin (2001) further explained his second principle based on the life cycle principle. He stated that previous research’s findings were inconsistent regarding the age-happiness relationship. A study conducted by Mroczek and Kolarz (1998) found a positive relationship between age and happiness, whereas Myers (1992) found no correlation at all (cited in Easterlin, 2001). A survey conducted by George (1992) found that prior to 1970s older people in the United States were less happy than younger people, while the recent research studies found differently that older generation is happier than younger generation (cited in Easterlin, 2001). Easterlin (2001) explained that such inconsistency caused by the failure to take into account the plausibility of variation in the relationship over time. According to Easterlin (2001), stability of happiness in life cycle does not mean that the level of subjective well-being remains constant over the life time. McLanahan and Sorensen (1985), and Myers (1992) stated that significant changes of particular circumstances in life cycle such as unemployment, retirement, and death of family members affect subjective well-being of people (cited in Easterlin, 2001). Easterlin (2001) continued to explain the last empirical regularity which is the past and prospective happiness. Based on the observation of life cycle happiness, there is a little change between people’s past and prospective happiness (Easterlin, 2001). In every survey, participants, however, generally think at any particular point in the life cycle they are happier today than in the past, and they will be happier in the future than today (Easterlin, 2001). The periods between past, today and future are long intervals such as 5 years or more. However, based on Easterlin (2001), in fact, on average the level of present happiness remains constant. Level of happiness does not change within a given period of time, but it is people who think they are becoming happier and happier from present time to the future.

NO. 8
The term economic growth is defined as the process whereby the country’s real national and per capita income increases over a long period of time while Economic development is defined as a sustained improvement in material well-being of society. Economic development is a wider concept than economic growth. The economic growth is a narrow term which involves increase in output in quantitative terms but economic development includes changes in qualitative terms such as social attitudes and customs along with quantitative growth of output or national income. Economic development without growth is almost inconceivable. The comparison between the two concepts is given in the table below:

Economic Growth
Economic Development

Meaning
Economic growth refers to an increase in the real output of goods and services in the country.
Economic development implies changes in income, savings and investment along with progressive changes in socio-economic structure of country (institutional and technological changes).

Factors
Growth relates to a gradual increase in one of the components of Gross Domestic Product: consumption, government spending, investment, net exports.
Development relates to growth of human capital, decrease in inequality figures, and structural changes that improve the quality of life of the population.

Measurement
Economic Growth is measured by quantitative factors such as increase in real GDP or per capita income
The qualitative measures such as HDI (Human Development Index), gender- related index, Human poverty index (HPI), infant mortality, literacy rate etc. are used to measure economic development.

Effect
Economic growth brings quantitative changes in the economy.
Economic Development leads to qualitative as well as quantitative changes in the economy.

Relevance
Economic growth reflects the growth of national or per capita income
Economic development reflects progress in the quality of life in a country.

Before I state my opinion on the current state of Nigeria as a nation, I will like to explain some common features of underdeveloped countries:
Low per Capita Income: The level of per capita income is very low in
underdeveloped countries.
Poor Level of Living: The vast majority of people in underdeveloped nations lie under the conditions of poverty, malnutrition, disease, illiteracy, etc. Even basic necessities of life such as minimum food clothing and shelter are not easily accessible to the poor masses.
High Rate of Growth of Population: Population growth in underdeveloped
countries neutralizes economic growth. High population implies greater
consumption expenditure and lower investments in productive activities and
slows down the economic development.
Highly Unequal Income Distribution: The income inequality between the
rich and the poor people within the underdeveloped countries is also very high.
Prevalence of Mass Poverty: Low level of per capita income combined with high degree of inequalities in its distribution leads to widespread poverty in underdeveloped countries.
Low Levels of Productivity: The Productivity level (i.e. output produced per person) tends to be very low in an underdeveloped country which is mainly due to: inefficient workforce which itself is a consequence of poverty, ill health and lack of education, Low work culture, Low use of capita in the form of machinery and equipment.
Low Rate of Capital Formation: The saving rate in an underdeveloped country is quite low and rate of capital formation is also is very slow.
Technological Backwardness: In most of the sectors, an underdeveloped economy the techniques of production employed are generally obsolete mainly due to low saving rate.
High Level of Unemployment: Unemployment levels are very high in the
underdeveloped countries mainly due to lack of capital and low level of
development in various economic sectors, these countries are not able to
absorb the rising labor supply.
Low Social Indicators of Development: The under-developed countries have very low social indicators such as low literacy rate, high infant mortality rate, low expectancy of life, etc. as compared to the developed countries.

Nigeria as a country aimed to achieve the macroeconomic objectives of economic stability, low unemployment, low inflation and balanced of payment equilibrium; but the internal problems of insecurity, insurgency and banditry, terrorism, corruption, mismanagement and
religion intolerances in Nigeria have hampered and slowed the country’s goals and objectives. Since 1960 that Nigeria gained independence, she seeks to achieve economic development which could translate to the well being of her people in terms of quality of life but the problems enumerated above have negated achieving these objectives. Nigeria has experienced economic growth over the years and yet no development in the context of Seer’s theory. For instance, our economic growth kept on increasing from -1.6% in 2016 to 0.8% in 2017, 1.9% in 2018 and has increase to 2.29% in 2019 which is the most increased growth since 2015 (CBN bulletin). It is sad to note that despite these growths, the citizens are still experiencing low standard of living and low quality of life. The levels of poverty, unemployment and inequality are increasing every day. For instance, Nigeria overtook India as the leading country with population of 86.9 million people living in extreme poverty according to the (World Poverty Clock Report, 2018). This constitutes 46.4% of the estimated 195.6 million total populations. Likewise, in 2019, the figure increased to 93.7 million while in the first quarter of 2020, the figure further increased to 95.9 million people living in extreme poverty. Both figures of 2019 and 2020 (first quarter) constitute 48% of the total population of Nigeria in the respective years.

Therefore, in view of the above enumerated points, it is strongly noted that Nigeria as a nation is currently experiencing economic growth and not economic development.

REFERENCES

Belshaw & Livingstone (2002). Sustainable Poverty Reduction Taking Income Generation Seriously in Transformational Development Strategy.

Boyce, C. J., Brown, G. D. A., & Moore, S. C. (2010). Money and happiness: Rank of income, not income, affects life satisfaction. Psychological Science, 21(4), 471-475. Doi: 10.1177/0956797610362671

Como, M. (2011). Do happier people make more money? An empirical study of the effect of a person’s happiness on their income. The Park Place Economist, 19. Retrieved from:
http://www.iwu.edu/economics/PPE19/1Como.pdf

Easterlin, R. A. (2001). Income and happiness: Towards a unified theory. The Economic Journal, 111 (July), 465-484. Retrieved from: http://www.uvm.edu/~pdodds/files/papers/others/2001/easterlin2001a.pdf

Goulet, D. (1971). Development Ethics: A Guide to Theory and Practice.
Inter-University Consortium For Political And Social Research, 27901. Retrieved from:
http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/icpsrweb/ICPSR/studies/27901

Lee, N. Y. (2006). Assessing happiness and competitiveness of world major metropolises, 2006.

Oxfarm International Report, 2017.

Seer, D. (1969). The meaning of Development; International Development Review. 11 (4).

Sen, A. (1999). Development as Freedom. New York. 31(4).

Todaro & Smith. (2006). Economic Development, 8th Edition, New York University.

United Nations Development Program (1995). Human Development Report, New York: Oxford University Press.

United Nations Development Program (2000). Human Development Report, New York: Oxford University Press.

United Nations Development Program (2010). Human Development Report, New York: Oxford University Press.

United Nations Development Program (2015). Human Development Report, New York: Oxford University Press.

United Nations Funds for Population Activities Report, 2018.

United Nations International Children Emergency Fund Publications, 2016.

United Nations International Children Emergency Fund Publications, 2018.

World Bank Report 1991.

World Health Organization Report, 2019.

World Poverty Clock Report, 2018 & 2019.

2019/245536
Okafor chilotam nancy
Economic and philosophy

1.Development is said to be more complicated than that of Growth and cannot just be achieved by raising productivity level or output level but by also involving changes in output composition shift in the allocation of productive materials and also by the reduction of poverty,inequalities,Unemployment.

2: Development is said to be more than raising productivity level but further involves total reduction or poverty and unemployment because it’s said the development is not possible without growth but growth is possible without development stating that in order achieve development Growth and
Employment must be achieved.

3:Yes, I totally agree with Amartya sen. Amartya sen came in terms with the fact that development definitely requires that sources of unfreedom, Poverty. Development is set to be achieved with a well built systematic economy which has no room for tyranny and social depreviation.

4:It is said that the biggest achievement of National development is the empowerment of women in the activities of the economy. Women in developed countries have been handed the positions and authorities to take certain decisions that affect the economy.

5:The ability to live long to achieve certain goals, The ability to being well nourished and healthy,The ability to read and write and understand certain aspects of life also being mobile.

6: Sustenance: The ability to afford the basic necessities of life with bothering anyone.it’s just the ability to fend for one’s self.
Self esteem: The ability to value one’s self and to have to level of pride in one’s self.
Freedom from servitude: Also known as freedom of choice. The ability to have various options to pick from in order to suit one’s desire.

7:Happiness could be said to increase as the income increases but it isn’t said to be agreed by all scholars who states that there are some factors affecting happiness i.e Health, personal freedom, personal values, community and friends e.t.c

8:Economic Growth refers to the increase in monetary income or output growth of a state in a particular period of time probably a year or two.
Economic development refers to the overall performance of the quality of life in nation which also includes economic growth.
Nigeria as a country is said to be undergoing development and could be referred to as an underdeveloped country in terms of development and as of growth we are still growing.

Samuel Francess Kenile
2019/250034
obogwusamuelfrances@gmail.com

1.Dudley Seers, first Director of IDS, argued that “the focus on national income as a target for achieving poverty reduction avoided the real problems of development” and recommended “redefining how development was measured”. In this paper, he offered policy recommendations to incorporate more socially-relevant measures to better address development problems, focusing on education, population growth, and political independence. Seers argued “that there is no real ‘development’ when the benefits of technology and progress helped only a small number of people in the developed world, who are already relatively rich.” Furthermore, “if governments become more interested in social measurements then statistics offices would produce more appropriate information” Apparently, the Indian Government had already tried to incorporate such measures in its National Household Survey of 1962.
Here, Dudley Seers suggests that development is when a country experiences a reduction or elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment.
In summary, Development means creating the conditions for the realization of human personality. Its evaluation must therefore take into account three linked economic criteria: whether there has been a reduction in poverty, unemployment; inequality.

2.What determines the composition of national output? In some cases, we say that there is “consumer sovereignty.” meaning that consumers decide how to spend their incomes on the basis of their tastes and market prices. In other cases, decisions are made by political choices of legislatures.

3. Yes I agree.
Reasons stated below;
We live in a world of unprecedented opulence a kind that would have been hard even to imagine a century or two ago there have also been remarkable changes beyond the economic sphere. People live more longer on the average than ever before. Also the different regions of the globe are now closely linked than they have ever been. This is so not only in the fields of trade, commerce and communication but also in terms of interactive ideas.
Yet we also live in a world with remarkable deprivation,destitution and depression  there are many new problems as well as old ones including persistence of poverty and unfufiled elementary needs and wide spread of hunger.
Many of this deprivations can be observed  in one form or another ,in rich countries as well as poor ones overcoming this problems is the central of the exercise of development. We have to recognise it is argued here as a process of expanding the real freedoms that people enjoy it is the process of expanding human freedom. It is “the enhancement of freedoms that allow people to lead lives that they have reason to live”.

4. It is historic that women play significant roles in societal development and ensure the stability, progress, and long-term development of nations. Women also play the role of decision-makers in homes. The woman performs the role of wife, partner, organizer, administrator, director, re-creator, disburser, economist, mother, disciplinarian, teacher, health officer, artist and queen in the family at the same time. Apart from it, women play a key role in the socio-economic development of the society. Women’s productive role includes all tasks that enhance the income and economy of the household and the community, e.g. crop and livestock production, handicrafts production, marketing and wage employment. invisible efforts to feed, clothe and nurture their families are the actions that sustain their communities”.

5.Capabilities are the doings and beings that people can achieve if they so choose — their opportunity to do or be such things as being well-nourished, getting married, being educated, and travelling; functionings are capabilities that have been realized.

Sen’s Capability Approach

The Capability Approach is defined by its choice of focus upon the moral significance of individuals’ capability of achieving the kind of lives they have reason to value. This distinguishes it from more established approaches to ethical evaluation, such as utilitarianism or resourcism, which focus exclusively on subjective well-being or the availability of means to the good life, respectively. A person’s capability to live a good life is defined in terms of the set of valuable ‘beings and doings’ like being in good health or having loving relationships with others to which they have real access.

Amartya Sen’s capability theory approach

The Sen capability approach is a moral framework. It proposes that social arrangements should be evaluated primarily according to the extent of freedom people have to promote as well as achieving functions they value. Amartya Sen’s capability theory approach is a theoretical framework that involves two core normative claims.

First, the assumption that freedom to achieve well-being is of primary moral importance. And second, that freedom to achieve well-being must be understood in terms of people with capabilities. In other words, their real opportunities to do and be what they value. The approach has been developed into a variety of more specific normative theories. Such as those of social justice or the narratives of development ethics.
It has also given rise to a new highly interdisciplinary literature in the social sciences resulting in new social statistics and indicators. And to a new policy paradigm used mainly in developing studies, the so-called “human development approach” or human well-being.

6. Values are important to  allow people in your organization to make good decisions on their own, by simply applying the values to new challenges that come along. Your core values will remove bottlenecks and empower individual growth across your organization. There are three core values of development: (i) sustenance, (ii) self- esteem, and (iii) freedom. Sustenance: Sustenance is the ability to meet basic needs of people. All people have certain basic needs without which life would be impossible. These basic needs include food, shelter, health, and protection.
Self-esteem:Self-esteem is confidence in one’s own worth or abilities. Self-esteem encompasses beliefs about oneself as well as emotional states, such as triumph, despair, pride, and shame
Freedom:Freedom is defined by Merriam Webster as the quality or state of being free, such as: the absence of necessity, coercion, or constraint in choice or action. liberation from slavery or from the power of another. boldness of conception or execution. a political right.

7. A 2010 study out of Princeton University found that there’s a correlation between happiness and wealth, to a point of about $75,000 per year. When people make more than $75,000 a year, their happiness doesn’t increase, but the lower their income is the worse they feel, the study found.
Almost all studies in the sizable literature on income and well-being examine evaluative well-being. Evaluative well-being is a person’s summary evaluation of their life, such as overall life satisfaction. These studies show that people with larger incomes tend to report greater evaluative well-being.

8.Economic growth focuses on production of goods and services. It is a uni-dimensional approach that deals with the economic growth of a nation.
Economic development focuses on distribution of resources.It is a multi-dimensional approach that looks into the income as well as the quality of life of a nation

Nigeria in terms of  economic growth: Nigeria’s annual real GDP growth rate, which averaged 7 percent from 2000 to 2014, fell to 2.7 percent in 2015 and to -1.6 percent in 2016. Growth rebounded to 0.8 percent in 2017, 1.9 percent in 2018, and then plateaued at 2 percent in the first half of 2019, where it is expected to remain for the rest of the year. Following the pandemic induced recession in 2020, Nigeria’s economic growth recovered but macroeconomic stability weakened. Amidst global commodity shocks, a depreciating currency, trade restrictions, and monetization of the deficit, inflation is surging and pushing millions of Nigerians into poverty. Worldwide gross domestic product in 2021 was at about 12.259 USD per capita. GDP in Nigeria, on the other hand, reached USD 2.085 per capita, or 440.78 billion USD in the whole country. Nigeria is therefore currently ranked 30 of the major economies.

Now;
Nigeria in terms of economic development:
Nigeria’s economy grew by 3.6% in 2021 from a 1.8% contraction in 2020, underpinned on the supply side by 4.4% expansion in the non-oil sector against 8.3% contraction in the oil sector; non-oil growth was driven by agriculture (2.1%) and services (5.6%).
Nigeria can be classified as a Stage 3 in Rostow’s Modernization Model and Nigeria is an LDC. Nigeria can be classified as a Stage 3 because of its biggest industries, such as footwear, chemicals, cement and other construction materials, printing, ceramics, and textiles.
Nigeria is in a challenging and deteriorating economic situation with lowered growth projections. To reduce its vulnerability to crisis and rise to its potential, Nigeria has to choose among markedly different paths. The lack of job opportunities is at the core of the high poverty levels, regional inequality, and social and political unrest. High inflation has also taken a toll on household’s welfare and high prices in 2020-2022 are likely to have pushed an additional 8 million Nigerians into poverty.

Conclusively Nigeria is experiencing Economic Growth which would later result to a developed Economy .

Adigwe Anthony Chibuikem. 2019/245463
1.However, before examining Dudley Seers in detail, Seers noticed a few changes in the field of development economics during the last 20 – 25 years. These changes resulting from world events or new tools and advances that have influenced the field of development are only representative and not comprehensive. As discussed by Dudley Seers, the purpose of development is to reduce poverty, inequality, and unemployment. To Seers, development involves reducing deprivation or broadening choice. It represents a multidimensional view of poverty that includes, hunger, illiteracy, illness and poor health, powerlessness, voicelessness, insecurity, humiliation and lack of access to basic infrastructures as discussed by Narayan et al.
2.Analysis of the relationship between economic growth and poverty reduction has gone through various phases in the literature on development. For example, an important premise of the very early theories of development was that the benefits of economic growth would trickle down to the poor. Since then, questions have been raised on the assumption of an automatic link between growth and poverty reduction, and attempts have been made to understand the mechanisms through which the benefits of growth may get transmitted to the poor. Some of the latter categories of studies do also refer to the role of employment; and yet, a rigorous analysis of the role of employment in the linkage between economic growth and poverty reduction appears to be missing. Economic growth, however, came back to fashion once there were studies casting doubt on the suggestion that higher growth could be associated with increased poverty, and re-asserting that growth, almost always, reduced poverty. The decade of the 1980s witnessed renewed emphasis (especially on the part of the international development partners) on economic growth; but studies on growth contributing to poverty reduction again came in good numbers during recent years.
3.Yes I agree. According to Sen, development is enhanced by democracy and the protection of human rights. Such rights, especially freedom of the press, speech, assembly, and so forth increase the likelihood of honest, clean, good government. He claims that “no famine has ever taken place in the history of the world in a functioning democracy”. This is because democratic governments “have to win elections and face public criticism, and have strong incentive to undertake measures to avert famines and other catastrophes”. Development is the process of expanding human freedom. The Sen capability approach is a moral framework. It proposes that social arrangements should be evaluated primarily according to the extent of freedom people have to promote as well as achieving functions they value.
4.Women are the set of human beings that belongs to the female gender. They play the role of mothers, caretakers in family affairs, farmers, educators, entrepreneurs, teachers, e.t.c. It is historic that women play significant roles in societal development and ensure the stability, progress, and long-term development of nations. Women also play the role of decision-makers in homes. As educators, the role or contribution of women to society’s transition from pre-literate to the literate period is highly significant. The role of women in providing an improved and sustainable workforce is also significant and exciting
5.When evaluating well-being, Sen argues, the most important thing is to consider what people are actually able to be and do. The commodities or wealth people have or their mental reactions (utility) are an inappropriate focus because they provide only limited or indirect information about how well a life is going. Sen illustrates his point with the example of a standard bicycle. This has the characteristics of ‘transportation’ but whether it will actually provide transportation will depend on the characteristics of those who try to use it. It might be considered a generally useful tool for most people to extend their mobility, but it obviously will not do that for a person without legs. argues that the correct focus for evaluating how well off people are is their capability to live a life we have reason to value, not their resource wealth or subjective well-being. But in order to begin to evaluate how people are performing in terms of capability, we first need to determine which functionings matter for the good life and how much, or at least we need to specify a valuation procedure for determining this. Evaluating capability is a second order exercise concerned with mapping the set of valuable functionings people have real access to. Since it takes the value of functionings as given, its conclusions will reflect any ambiguity in the valuation stage.
6.I) Sustenance: Sustenance refers to the basic needs of a human being without which survival would not be possible. These needs include food, shelter, security and good health. Shortage of any of these necessities implies a situation of severe underdevelopment of the economy. Development, therefore, must lead to the reduction of these shortages and fulfil these basic needs of the population. The benefits of growth must be accompanied by a reduction in this absolute poverty situation. As a result, improvement in the quality of overall life in an economy is bound to occur. II) Self esteem: Every individual is entitled to a sense of self-worth or self-respect. Although the nature of self-esteem may change with society or the economy, the basic idea remains the same. All people have the right to a life of dignity and honour. Respect, however, is often attached to wealth and the underdevelopment of an economy can be a burden on people’s self-esteem. Hence to promote self-worth, development must be spread across the whole economy and not just certain sections within it. III) Freedom: Freedom refers to not just freedom from servitude, but also from discrimination, oppressive beliefs and practices. Equal opportunity and freedom in every aspect of the social, legal, cultural and political situation are necessary for every individual. Everyone must be free to choose and have control over their own life and actions. Growth without freedom has been observed in many nations, which defeats the purpose of development.
7.The original 2010 study, conducted by Princeton University researchers, found that people’s day-to-day happiness increases with income up to about $75,000 at which point it tops out. So according to this study, someone who makes $100,000 a year is not happier on a day-to-day level than someone making $75,000. The 2010 study said this is largely because people at this income point don’t have financial stresses such as whether they’ll have enough to pay rent each month. However, while the 2010 study found that day-to-day happiness eventually tops out, it also found that general life satisfaction does not and, indeed, continues growing alongside income. But Matthew Killingsworth, the senior fellow behind the most recent study, says that his experiments revealed that there was no dollar value at which money stopped mattering to an individual’s well-being. He came to this conclusion after collecting 1.7 million data points from more than 33,000 participants who provided in-the-moment snapshots of their feelings during daily life. He found that all forms of well-being continued rising with income, not seeing any sort of inflection point where money stops mattering. Instead, it just keeps increasing.
8.Economic growth can be referred to as the increase that is witnessed in the monetary value of all the goods and services produced in the economy during a time period. It is a type of quantitative measure that reflects the potential increase in the number of business transactions taking place in the economy. Economic development refers to the process by which the overall health, well-being, and academic level of the general population of a nation improves. It also refers to the improved production volume due to the advancements of technology. Nigeria’s HDI (Human Development Index) can be classified as having a “low HDI” stage of human development because evidence shows that they have been ranked as the 205th country in the world, out of 225 countries, under GDP, PPP Country Rank.

NAME: SIMON PATIENCE PRECIOUS
REG NO: 2019/244760
DEPARTMENT: ECONOMICS
E-MAIL ADDRESS: patiencepre66@gmail.com
1. Professor Dudley Seers argues that development is about outcomes ie development occurs with the reduction and elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment within a growing economy.
Discuss
Answer
Development is seen as complex multi dimensional concept involving improvements in human being. Development involves growth in every aspect of the economy,a country must engage in actions that their outcomes create positive impacts in the economy and on the citizen,for an economy to be classified as a developed economy,it means there are no forms of inequality,majority of the citizens are not in poverty and people that are capable and willing to work gets a befitting job and that they are not underemployed.Hence,Professor Dudley seers argument that development is about outcomes i.e development occurs with the reduction and elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment within growing economy.

2. Apart from a rise in output, Economic Development involves changes in composition of output, shift in the allocation of productive resources, and elimination or reduction of poverty, inequalities and unemployment. Clearly discuss the above assertion.
Answer
We must be aware that Economic growth refers to the increase in monetary or output growth of a nation in a particular period, this means that economic development is not possible without economic growth but growth is possible without development. As we all know, development is a multi dimensional concept and development involves changes in composition of output which means that a developed economy has a surplus Balance of payments(BOP)
Talking about development involving elimination or reduction of poverty, this means that development is the overall positive change of the quality of life of a nation which includes economic growth, this also means that the standard of living if a large majority of the population rises and people are able to fend for themselves
Lastly, unequal distribution of wealth and both underemployment and unemployment are tackled and been rooted out. If all of this could be achieved then we can say that Development has taken place.

3. In the words of Amartya Sen “Development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom, poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systematic social deprivation neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or over activity of repressive states. Do you agree? Explain in details
Answer
Yes I do agree with Amartya sen when he said “Development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom, poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systematic social deprivation neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or over activity of repressive states”.
Why? Because Development is the process of expanding human freedom. It is the enhancement of freedoms that allow people to lead lives that they have reason to live.Development does not guarantee eradication of poverty but of course reduces it to the minimal,development makes life easy in terms of transportation,communication and many more to mention but few,there are lots an individual or a national can achieve with development because it guarantees stable economy.
4. Critically discuss the Central Role of Women in the National Development
Answers
Women play powerful roles in the society and country as a whole,To start with,women plav the roles of Mother and caretaker in the family affairs because women are the one to take good care of the family and family is the smallest organization in the society,any family that doesn’t have a good woman will have problem that might affect the society. Women ensure the stability progress and long term development of nations.Women has come to the level whereby they are no longer just ordinary house wife but they are intelligent and Educated.
Women are found involving themselves in politics and they’re holding powerful political post, Examples are Zainab Ahmed as the minister of finance, budget and National planning,Sadiyat Umar Farouq as the minister of humanitarian Affairs, Pauline Tallen as the minister of women affairs,Mojisola Adeyeye Director-general NAFDAC e.t.c. Women are involved in the decision making of the country a good example is Mary slessor who fought against killing of twins at infancy in Calabar . Women as a home manager play role of bringing up children who will affect the society and thereby affecting the development of a nation

5. Clearly discuss some Important “Beings” and
”Doings” in Capability to Function
Answer
Here are some important “Being” and “Doing” in capability to function:
1.Being able to live long:development entails provision of security and also a good health care service coupled with good infrastructures and with all this in check,humans tend to live longer.
2.Being well nourished:not been well nourished causes a lot of sickness like kwarshiokor etc. Human beings has to eat a proper food at a proper time and this can’t be achieved in a poor economy, the government definitely has to support by making jobs available for the citizens and catering for their people.
3.Being healthy : Like we all normally say, “health is wealth” we become healthy by eating good food,engaging ourselves in exercise, getting enough sleep and also minding our business.
4.Being literate: this means having a knowledge of what is going on around us,taking some time to read valuable books and meditating upon them,listening to the news i.e giving attention to things that widens one’s knowledge
5.Being well clothed: wearing a befitting cloth commands respect.Someone’s ability to look good and buy clothes are because they have jobs that gives them the funds they need and this is still development.
6.Being mobile: this translates to being versatile
7.Being able to take part in the life of the community: taking part in the life of the community is being charitable, the sense of usefulness and humanitarian.
6. Discuss the three Core Values of Development with relevant example
Answer
1.Sustenance:this is the ability to make ends meet,it is the ability of an individual or family to meet basic needs such as clothing,shelter, feeding etc. it also deals with means of sustaining or supporting life or health; nourishment, especially food and drink: Parent being able to cater their children’s needs and being consistent with it without any form of hindrance.
2.Self esteem: this is how we value and perceive ourselves. It’s based on our opinions and beliefs about ourselves, which can feel difficult to change. We might also think of this as self-confidence, to have a dignified personality. Having confidence in your worth and ability. Acting assertively without experiencing any guilt, and feel at ease communicating with others is a typical example of self esteem.
3.freedom from servitude: servitude is a condition in which an individual lacks liberty especially to determine his or her course of action or way of life and to be free from such slavery life, it’s starts from the economy when the democracy is for the people and also by the people. One must have the ability to choose what he or she wants without being forced.A type example is rape when someone is been taken advantage of without any mutual consent,another example of involuntary servitude is the system of peonage, whereby the poor were forced to labor until their debt was satisfied.
7. Some scholars have argued that happiness has a direct correlation with more income while others disagree with the assertion.
Answer
It is true that happiness has a direct correlation with more income, people become happy when their efforts are appreciated with funds and with that they are able to make ends meet however, income do not always bring happiness I mean how would someone making money from illegal source be happy? Maybe someone without conscience. I totally disagree with the assertion that happiness has a direct correlation with more income because the more income one makes the more problem the person is likely to face either from the family members or from the person’s community and one tends to want to stay up their not minding the kind of sacrifice they give to stand high above whether people are being hurt or not. The more income one makes the more insecure the person is because the person automatically becomes point of attraction to the public and of course the greedy ones might even attempt robbery. One’s happiness shouldn’t be attached to the income he/she makes.
8. Distinguish between Economic Growth and Economic Development and tell us where we are currently as a nation in terms of growth and development.
Answer
Economic growth is a short term process which refers to increase in monetary or output growth of a nation in a particular period, it takes place when there is a sustained increase in a country’s output of goods and services.Economic growth is a uni-dimensional approach which deals with the increase in income or output of a nation, it is more about income i.e GDP,GNP,GNI etc. WHILE Economic Development is long term process which leads to progressive changes in the socioeconomic structure of a country. Economic development is the overall development of the quality of life in a nation which includes economic growth, it occurs when the standard of living of a large majority of the population rises, including both income and other dimensions like health and literacy.Economic development is a multi-dimensional approach that looks into the income and as well as the quality of life of a nation.
Nigeria presently falls under a developing country, though the country is growing in terms of her citizens getting a good education but not quality enough to be called a developed country,let’s take for a example when all the universities went on strike for good eight months because of federal government inability to pay the lecturers but they had funds to redesign the currency which was not really necessary, this is total a misplaced priority because it affected a lot of Nigerian students positively and some were affected negatively. The country is currently stagnant when it comes to growth and without the country growing, development will never take place.

OKORO OLUCHI RUTH (2019/241597)

1. Professor Dudley Seers’ argument entails that development is a multi-dimensional concept. It is not merely growth in GDP but should include overall improvements in human well-being. He specifies that development is about outcomes. Outcomes are the measurement and evaluation of an activity’s results, in other words, what you hope to achieve. This therefore implies that until certain outcomes are achieved, development cannot be said to occur. The outcomes outlined are
– Reduction and elimination of poverty.
-Reduction and elimination of inequality.
– Reduction and elimination of unemployment.
Before Seers’ argument, many economists believed that development is achieved when a country’s GDP grows or increases. However, Dudley came up with an approach which included three vital variables for achieving development. According to him, if these three concepts decline over a period of time then development has occurred in the said economy. On the other hand, if one or two have been growing worse, then it isn’t ideal to say that development has occurred. He argued that three questions must be asked for a nation to boldly say that they are developed.
-What is happening to poverty?
-What is happening to inequality?
-What is happening to unemployment?
A decline in these variables equals development. A reduction in these variables will result to an increase in the well-being and quality of life of the citizens. This means that when the citizens are free from poverty, ie they have access to basic human needs including food, shelter and safe drinking water, education, health, information, access to life and improved standard of living (-United Nations). Consequently, there should be a shift in the allocation of productive resources. For instance equality in standard of living, distribution of income and wealth, health and economy, a reduced gap between the rich and the poor, etc. In the case of unemployment, citizens who are willing, available, qualified and actively looking for work should be employed and or fully utilised to their full capabilities. When all these factors are present in an economy, then development is said to have occurred. Otherwise, Dudley argues that it is strange to say that development has occurred when these three variables -unemployment, inequality and poverty are still on the increase rather than declining.

2. Development cannot occur without growth. Growth is determinant on the rise in output (GDP). However, growth does not deal with the composition of this output. GDP doesn’t tell us whether the produced mix of goods and services is enriching or detrimental to the society; In other words, a country’s GDP does not necessarily measure its total well-being which is what development entails. In addition, the allocation of productive resources is not explicitly reviewed by the GDP. The composition of output and effective distribution of productive resources is important for the overall well-being of the citizens, hence, important for development. Therefore, even though growth is a necessary condition for development it is not a sufficient condition because for development to occur, there should be improvement in the overall well-being and this improvement is as a result of changes in composition of output shift in allocation of productive resources and elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment as earlier explained. While growth is the building block, development is the endpoint of every economy.

3. Since development occurs when there is improvement in the well-being of the economy, it is ideal to agree with Amartya Sen that development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom which can be detrimental to the well-being of the economy. If there is no freedom, it means that citizens are suffering and the standard of living is poor. Thus, freedom is vital for development to occur because freedom equals improved standard of living which leads to development.
Measuring a country’s GDP and growth rate is not directly linked to the real freedom that its citizens enjoy. For instance, in Nigeria though there might be an increase in the GDP, there are still major sources of unfreedom that distinguishes her from developed countries. In Nigeria, money is still a major constraint to studying in the university of your choice. Some parents put their children in most affordable schools and not the schools they desire because they are constrained by their budget (minimum wage). On the other hand, in developed countries money is not a major constraint to attaining higher education. There are provisions for student loans which help students study in any university of their choice without being constrained by their budget. Consequently, there are other sources of unfreedom such as systematic social deprivation, neglect of public facilities and intolerance or over activities of repressive states. In Nigeria the northern region are allocated more resources. Kano state alone has 44 local government areas which is equivalent to the total local government areas of three states in the South-East combined. Poverty also hinders an individual’s productive achievement. Freedom, therefore is necessary as the primary end objective and the principal means of development.

4. To make the biggest impact on development, societies must empower and invest in women. According to Sen, women have ‘hardier’ bodies and will survive better than men given symmetrical care. For instance, according to (Graduate journal of social science 2004, cited by researchgate) the female-male ratio in developed countries is 1.05 as women tend to outlive men. Meanwhile in developing Nations it is .94 in China and .93 in India. So much potential is wasted as a result of lack of investment in women, neglect of female children, child marriage, poor female healthcare, reduced fertility rates, etc. These are detrimental to capacity-building of females. Women should be reoriented and given equal opportunity to rise and assume empower, economic rule outside the family, education, literacy and property rights. If women are constantly empowered and motivated to speak out, will contribute their own quota to national development.
In addition, we cannot talk about Nigeria’s pre-colonial history without identifying the contributions of Queen Amina of zaria, Margret Fumilayo Ransome-kuti, to mention but a few. Women play a vital role in governance and if properly empowered, they will help in peace-building and economic stability. Women have the required skills to direct organise and coordinate available resources. This is important to develop all aspects of the economy which can lead to national development. According to Asangu et al, a nation’s competitiveness depends significantly on whether and how it educates and utilizes its female talents.

5. some of the important ‘beings’ and ‘doing’ in capacity to function as propounded by Amartya Sen are: being able to live long, being well-nourished, being healthy, being literate, being well clothed, being able to take part in the life of the community, being mobile.
Being able to live long: members of a society should be privileged enough to live long without experiencing hazards such as accidents, pollution, kidnapping, terrorism etc that can pose a threat to their life. In most developing nations, there is increase in death/mortality rate unlike in most developed countries where people live longer as a result of good well-being. If there is absence of such hazards then there is capacity to function of the individuals. Every human being should be entitled to right to life, therefore being able to live long is an important ‘being’.
Being able to take part in the life of the community: When one cannot make ends meet they can not actively participate in the community. For instance, a man that does not have enough money to travel to his hometown cannot fully identify with his people. Poverty is a major factor that leads to inadequate participation in the life of the community.
Being mobile: There should be no barriers or restrictions to movement. For instance if one does not like his current job or is not comfortable with the work environment, they should be free to move from one job to another. However in Nigeria, it is difficult and almost impossible to freely move from one job to another without barriers.
Being literate: there are many ways of achieving literacy which does not only include attaining the basic education and training in speech and writing. One should be able to improve his speech and writing skills by being omnivorous in readings. For example, reading newspapes, books, conducting research, attending seminars to mention but a few.
Being healthy: Every citizen should have the right to quality health care in developed countries. Free and standard health care are provided for the citizens and they are easily accessible.

6.
i. Sustenance: The ability to meet basic needs, without which survival would not be possible. These basic needs are food, shelter, security, light, water and good health.
For example in developed countries, water and light are easily accessible to the citizen as basic needs. However, in a developing country like Nigeria, it is difficult to have consistent electricity supply and most communities still find it hard to gain access to clean water supply. In order for development to occur there must be a reduction of these shortages which will result to the improvement in the standard of living and general well-being in the economy.
ii. Self-esteem: the ability to be a person. Every individual should be entitled to dignity, self-respect and self-worth. In developing countries, most times dignity and self-worth is attributed to only the rich or some areas that are considered developed. However, development is vital to promote self worth and self respect across the whole economy and to all individuals, not just certain sections or people.
iii. Freedom from servitude: to be able to choose. Every individual should be free from discrimination and oppression. Equal opportunity should be provided in every aspect of the economy and for every individual. Everyone must be free to choose and make their own independent decisions. Individual should be entitled to their own life and their own actions.

7. Some scholars argue that happiness has a direct correlation with increase in income. However, it is imperative to note that there are other factors affecting happiness which do not change even as income increases. There are certain reasons why I disagree that happiness has a direct correlation with more income.
Firstly, the case of insecurity: The more money one makes the less secured he is. A rich man is always worried about guarding himself from kidnappers or robbers. This will most likely reduce his happiness. Unlike a poor man who has nothing to worry about. No matter the amount or level of income, freedom of movement and absence of threat to life leads to more happiness than having more income yet being unsafe.
Consequently certain government policy can make the rich cry. This can be seen in the case of rebranding of the Naira notes. Most people that have attained a large amount of income by stacking up Naira notes in their vaults have made a huge loss as a result of the remodeling of the currency.
Morey, family relationships can hinder happiness even as income increases. For instance, if one of the children from a poor family eventually find a good-paying job, he is considered the savior of the family and all the responsibilities of his immediate family members will be placed on his head. For example, if the first son of the family complets his undergraduate studies and gets a good job which generates more income for him, his parents might decide to take a break from paying school fees of the younger ones and expect the first son to foot all the bills of the household since he is considered rich. This can be a hindrance to his happiness even though he is getting more income.
Another factor that proves that happiness is not directly correlated to more income is work satisfaction. An individual might be gaining more income from his job but due to lack of satisfaction with the overall work experience and work environment he might not be happy with his job. Some people have quit high-paying jobs as a result of lack of satisfaction and unhappiness.
Therefore there is no direct correlation between happiness and more income. People could be poor but happy; rich but unhappy.

8. Economic growth refers to increase in the monetary income or output growth of a nation in a particular period. It occurs when there is a sustained increase in a country’s output of goods and services, that is, increase in GDP while economic development refers to the overall development of the quality of life in a nation which includes economic growth. It occurs when the standard of living of a large majority of the population rises including both income and other dimensions like health and literacy.
Economic growth is a narrow measure of economic welfare that does not take account of non economic aspects such as access to health, education, freedom and social justice. On the other hand, economic development is a broader concept that involves steady decline in agricultural shares in GNP and continuous increase in shares of industry, trade banking, construction and services.
Economic growth is a uni-dimensional approach while economic development is a multi-dimensional approach
Economic growth is a short-term process whereas economic development is a long-term process which leads to progressive changes in the socio-economic structure of the country.
Economic growth is about income while economic development is about outcomes, that is, human development indicators, industrial development, improved standard of living etc. (Professor Dudley seers)
Economic growth is a necessary but insufficient condition for economic development while economic development is a necessary and sufficient condition for improvement of human welfare, increase of standard of living and reduction of poverty.
Nigeria as a nation is growing but is very far from development. In 2014, Nigeria overtook South Africa and became the largest economy in Africa. Nigeria’s GDP surpassed South Africa’s GDP in 2014. This implied a massive growth in the economy. However, this growth didn’t transform to development in Nigeria. Regardless of an increase in the country’s GDP, Nigeria is still considered a developing country because the overall well-being and standard of living of the citizens are still declining. There is no reduction of poverty, inequality and unemployment. However, in recent years, there has been a steady decline in the GDP of Nigeria.
Nigeria is classified as a developing country regardless of being the largest economy in Africa. This is because certain criteria that facilitate development are still not met. Citizens still do not have access to good health care system, there is a continuous increase in poverty and unemployment, insecurity is the order of the day and there is still a huge gap between the rich and the poor. All these sources of unfreedom are major hindrances to the development of Nigeria even as a growing nation. Until Nigeria can eliminate these sources of unfreedom and achieve an improvement in the standard of living and well-being of the economy then it can be said to have developed.

Name: Abasilim Chisom Judith
Reg no: 2019/249128

1 . Poverty, inequality and unemployment are the main characteristics of an underdeveloped country or economy. Though development has so many definitions but professor Dudley was right when he defined development as the “the reduction and elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment within a growing economy.”
An economy is said to be developed when there is an increase in the standard of living or quality of life if individuals in that economy. This means providing better life for people which includes higher incomes rate for employees which helps to reduce or eliminate extreme hunger and poverty, higher employment rate which helps to reduce or eliminate unemployment among people especially our youths and absence of inequality which provides a fair and just society.

2 . Apart from output Economic Development involves changes in composition of output, shift in the allocation of productive resources, and elimination or reduction of poverty, inequalities and unemployment.
Economic development is different from economic growth, economic growth is only concerned with the increase in the level of output but not about the well being of people while economic development is both concerned about the increase in the level of output and the well-being and quality of life of people. Development ensures the removal of poverty, unemployment and provide numerous opportunities to improve peoples lives and the nation as a whole such as creation of job opportunities, construction of roads, better health care, proper education and so on. Development cares about the welfare of its citizens and provides ways to improve their wellbeing.

3 . Development is a process that ensures good quality of life to all the people in terms of happiness, harmony and satisfaction of essential needs. It is related to improvement, progress and aspirations of people.
Development in a country improves
quality of peoples lives, hence it aids to the removal of unfreedom, poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systematic social deprivation neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or over activity of repressive states.
Development brings about provision of employment opportunities,access to proper health care, qualitative education, decent housing, equality and so on which improves the standard of living of people and help to reduce and eliminate unfreedom in an economy. All citizens benefits from a developed country, their lifestyle and their lives generally improves.

4 . The central roles of women national development
Women as care takers

Women are the primary caretakers of children and elders in every country of the world. International studies demonstrate that when the economy and political organization of a society change, women take the lead in helping the family adjust to new realities and challenges. They are likely to be the prime initiator of outside assistance, and play an important role in facilitating (or hindering) changes in family life.
Women as educators

contribution of women to a society’s transition from pre-literate to literate likewise is undeniable. Basic education is key to a nation’s ability to develop and achieve sustainability targets. Research has shown that education can improve agricultural productivity, enhance the status of girls and women, reduce population growth rates, enhance environmental protection, and widely raise the standard of living.
It is the mother in the family who most often urges children of both genders to attend – and stay – in school.  The role of women is at the front end of the chain of improvements leading to the family’s, the community’s long-term capacity.
The role of women in the workforce

Women’s formal and informal labor can transform a community from a relatively autonomous society to a participant in the national economy. Despite significant obstacles, women’s small businesses in rural developing communities not only can be an extended family’s lifeline, but can form a networked economic foundation for future generations. The role of women in the urban and rural workforce has expanded exponentially in recent decades.
The role of women as global volunteers

This strengthens women’s and children’s capacity and supports their sustained health and development. Under the direction of local leaders, our volunteers help ensure academic accessibility, foster parental involvement, offer psycho-social support, provide nutrition and health education, fund girls’ scholarships, construct schools with girls’ bathrooms, tutor literacy, and numeracy, and so much more. Contact us using the form below to learn how you can contribute to this critical agenda.

5 . At the core of the capability approach is a normative commitment to conceptualize well-being in terms of capabilities and functionings. Functionings are ‘doings and beings’, that is, various states of human beings and activities that a person has achieved, such as being well-nourished, getting married, being educated, and travelling, while capabilities are the real, or substantive, opportunity that they have to achieve these doings and beings.

6 . sustenance
Self esteem
Freedom of servitude

Sustenance:
Sustenance is the ability to meet basic needs of people. All people have certain basic needs without which life would be impossible.

The life-sustaining basic human needs include food, shelter, health and protection. When any one of these is absent or in critically short supply, a condition of absolute “underdevelopment” exists.

Self-esteem: A second universal component of good life is self- esteem-

Sense of worth and self-respect and feeling of not being marginalized are extremely important for individual’s well being. All peoples and societies seek some form of self-esteem (identity, dignity, respect, honor etc.). The nature and form of self- esteem may vary from on culture to another and from time to time. Self-esteem may be based on material values: higher income or wealth may be equated with higher worthiness. One may consider individuals worthy based on their intellect or public service

Due to the significance attached to material values in developed nations, worthiness and esteem are now-a-days increasingly conferred only on countries that possess economic wealth and technological power- those that have developed.

Now-a-days the Third World seeks development in order to gain the esteem which is denied to societies living in a state of disgraceful “underdevelopment.”Development is legitimized as a goal because it is an important, perhaps even an indispensable, way of gaining esteem.6

Freedom from Servitude:

Human freedom, the ability to choose, is essential for the well being of individuals. Freedom involves an expanded range of choices for societies: economic and political. It involves freedom from bondage, serfdom, and other exploitative economic, social, and political relationships.
Arthur Lewis stressed the relationship between economic growth and freedom from servitude when he concluded that “the advantage of economic growth is not that wealth increases happiness, but that it increases the range of human choice.” Wealth can enable a person to gain greater control over nature and his physical environment than they would have if they remained poor.
1. It also gives them the freedom to choose greater leisure. The concept of human freedom should encompass various components of political freedom, freedom of expression, political participation and equality of opportunity.

7 . There is no perfect correlation between money and happiness because one could be rich and unhappy and poor and also unhappy
One of the most well-known findings in the economic study of happiness is that, on average, happiness increases with income, but at a certain point diminishing returns set in
In other words, money can only buy a fixed level of happiness, after which extra income and wealth doesn’t make much difference. Presumably after this point, happiness depends on other things, such as health, leisure time, quality of friendship and close family.
you’re given a one-off increase in your income, your happiness temporarily increases – until you get used to it then you begin to aspire for more. At first, when you’re earning a meager income, your focus is on buying yourself your daily needs. As your income increases, so does your standard of living. You purchase goods of higher quality. You begin to want better products and services – a better car, a bigger house, etc. Very rarely are we satisfied with what we have, if we see that there are better things available.
In the social comparison mechanism, people evaluate their income by comparing it to other people. Here, we evaluate our happiness by how much more we have as compared to other people. Although you already have a nice house, a good car, or the latest gadgets, if your neighbor has better stuff, you will cease to be contented with what you have. And you will blame the disparity and your discontent on your income. You say to yourself, I must earn more.
Happiness does not have a direct correlation to more income. Most rich people today are not happy though the earn more income daily. Happiness is said to come from within an individual and also spending time with people they love

8 .Economic development implies an upward movement of the entire social system in terms of income, savings and investment along with progressive changes in socioeconomic structure of country (institutional and technological changes).
While Economic growth refers to an increase over time in a country`s real output of goods and services (GNP) or real output per capita income.

Development relates to growth of human capital indexes, a decrease in inequality figures, and structural changes that improve the general population’s quality of life while Growth relates to a gradual increase in one of the components of Gross Domestic Product: consumption, government spending, investment, net exports.

Economic development brings qualitative and quantitative changes in the economy while economic growth brings quantitative changes in the economy

Economic development is more relevant to measure progress and quality of life in developing nations while Economic growth is a more relevant metric for progress in developed countries. But it’s widely used in all countries because growth is a necessary condition for development.

Economic development is Concerned with structural changes in the economy while Growth is concerned with increase in the economy’s output.

Economic development is not possible without economic growth while economic growth is possible without economic development.

In economic development, the number of people living in poverty decreases while in economic growth the number of people in poverty increases despite the increase in national income.

Following the pandemic induced recession in 2020, Nigeria’s economic growth recovered but macroeconomic stability weakened. Amidst global commodity shocks, a depreciating currency, trade restrictions, and monetization of the deficit, inflation is surging and pushing millions of Nigerians into poverty. Since 2021, Nigeria is also unable to benefit from the surging global oil prices, as oil production has fallen to historic lows and petrol subsidy continues to consume a larger share of the gross oil revenues.
In 2018, 40% of Nigerians (83 million people) lived below the poverty line, while another 25% (53 million) were vulnerable. With Nigeria’s population growth continuing to outpace poverty reduction, the number of Nigerians living in extreme poverty is set to rise by 7.7 million between 2019 and 2024.
While the economy is projected to grow at an average of 3.2% in 2022-2024, the growth outlook is subject to downside risks including further declines in oil production and heightened insecurity. Meanwhile, continued scarcity of foreign exchange and tighter liquidity could affect the economic activity in the non-oil sector and undermine the overall macroeconomic stability. The uncertainty is also expected to be accompanied by high inflation and continued fiscal and debt pressures. 
Development Challenges
While Nigeria has made some progress in socio-economic terms in recent years, its human capital development ranked 150 of 157 countries in the World bank’ 2029 human capital index. The country continues to face massive developmental challenges, including the need to reduce the dependency on oil and diversify the economy, address insufficient infrastructure, build strong and effective institutions, as well as address governance issues and public financial management systems.
Inequality, in terms of income and opportunities, remains high and has adversely affected poverty reduction. The lack of job opportunities is at the core of the high poverty levels, regional inequality, and social and political unrest. High inflation has also taken a toll on household’s welfare and high prices in 2020-2022 are likely to have pushed an additional 8 million Nigerians into poverty.

NAME: ANIBODI CHIAMAKA TESKA
DEPARTMENT: ECONOMICS EDUCATION
REG NUMBER: 2019/243747
COURSE CODE AND TITLE: ECO 391/DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS
NO 1
Prof Dudley Seers argues, development is about outcomes i.e development occurs with the reduction and elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment within a growing economy. Discuss
Economic development is a multi-dimensional approach that looks into different cases in an economy. According to Prof. Dudley Seers he argues that in an economy that is said to be economically developed, there should be reduction and elimination of poverty, inequalities and unemployment. If there’s high rate of unemployment, poverty etc in a nation, the nation is said to be undeveloped. Also a country that creates barrier between the rich and the poor, whereby the rich are being suppressed and treated as slaves, that nation is no way near economic development. Therefore for economic development to take place in such nation there should be elimination of poverty and reduction of unemployment through creating more job opportunities for the citizens, breaking the barrier between the rich and the poor by making everyone equal. With these economic development will begin to breed in a nation.
NO 2
Apart from a rise in output, it involves changes in composition of output, shift in the allocation of productive resources and elimination or reduction of poverty, inequalities and unemployment. Discuss.
Positive change in composition of output can create room for economic development. For instance, in an agro-centered economy,(i.e an economy that deals with production of raw materials only) they might be doing well there, but if the economy should change the composition of their output from production of raw materials only to refining these materials to create products, automobiles etc, it will help in the nation’s economic development. Also an economy that increases it’s allocation of production resources, tends to produce more thereby giving birth to economic development. In the case of elimination or reduction of poverty and unemployment, a Nation can never be poor and it’s citizens highly unemployed and says to be developed. Such country is not a developing economy. Therefore in order to birth economic development the nation has to eliminate or reduce poverty and unemployment rate and also break the barrier between the poor citizens and the rich citizens.
NO 3
In the words of Amartya Send, “development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom, poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systematic social deprivation, neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or over activity of repressive states….”. Do you agree?. Explain in details.
Yes, I agree. The major sources of unfreedom, tyranny etc can equally be termed economic problems and they are as follows: inequality and marginalization, conflict, hunger, malnutrition and stunting, poor healthcare systems, little or no access to clean water, sanitization and hygiene, lack of education, poor public works and infrastructure etc. A Nation suffering from all these can never be an economically developed nation because it needs to take proper care of all those problems and when that is achieved then the nation can be termed a developed economy.
NO 4
Critically discuss the central role of women in the national development.
Women has so much to offer just that sometimes we need to be invested in, we need to be empowered, we need motivations in order to really display our ideas on the table. When women are being invested in, we can really perform so much roles in the economy to help in national development.
No 5
Clearly discuss some important “being and doing” in capacity function.
Some of the important “doing” and “being” are as follows:
1. Being healthy: This can be achieved through exercise, eating balanced diets, going for check ups etc.All these will help in keeping us strong and healthy.
2. Being literate: One can be literate enough through these ways; attending seminars, reading educative books, learning positive knowledge and through researching too.
3. Being mobile: This doesn’t imply having a motorcycle or tricycle. It means moving freely, traveling and exploring the world.
4. Being well nourished: This can be achieved by eating balanced diet and resting well too.
5. Being well clothed: One has to always were clothes that are productive. There is this saying that people are being addressed with the way they dress. If you are dressed half naked you will not be addressed in a proper way but when you are dressed decently you be addressed in a proper way.
NO 6
Discuss the three core values of development with examples.
The three core values of development are as follows:
1. sustenance: This has to do with the ability of individuals to meet their basic needs. Eg food, clothings, shelter etc.
2. Self esteem: Self esteem means how we value and perceive ourselves. It is based on our opinions and believe about ourselves, which can feel difficult to change. Eg I am loved, I am worthy, triumph, despair, pride and shame etc.
3. Freedom from servitude: This means human freedom, the ability to choose and it is essential for the well being of individual. Eg freedom from slavery, freedom from bondage etc.
No 7
Some scholars have argued that happiness has a direct correlation with more income while others disagree with the assertion.
I am with the assertion that happiness has a direct correlation with more income with this point. Let’s take for instance health and healthcare services.bif a poor man is diagnosed with cancer disease, he might even die before his due time after hearing the news due to too much thinking. He will of cause loose hope because he knows that he doesn’t have any money for treatment and without treatment he is in trouble. But a rich fellow when diagnosed with same disease may not worry too much because he already knows that the money for his treatment in any of the best hospital in the world is available.
No 8i
Distinguish between economic growth and economic development.
1. Economic growth refers to increase on the monetary or output growth of a Nation in a particular period while economic development refers to the overall development of the quality of life in a Nation which includes economic growth.
2. Economic growth is a narrower concept while economic development is a broader concept.
3. Economic growth is about income ( GDP, GNI, GNP etc) while economic development is about outcomes ( human development indicators, industrial development, improved standard of living etc)
4. Economic growth is a short term process while economic development is a long term process which leads to progressive changes to socio-economic structure of a country.
5. Economic growth is a uni-dimensional approach while economic development is a multi-dimensional approach.

NO 8ii
Tell us where we are currently as a Nation in terms of economic growth and economic development.
Nigeria is currently in economic growth this is because there is only increase in GDP and it is not enough for a country to be economically developed.

Hezekiah Joy Chiwonke
2019/245662
Economics/Philosophy
Development Economics
Hezekiahjoy224@gmail.com

Dudley Seers, a leading development Economist made an assertion that development is about OUTCOMES and not INCOMES, i.e. Development occurs with the reduction and elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment within a growing economy. This assertion was necessitated by reason of the fact that though the economic growth in developing economies has been stressed in the UN’s first development program (1960-1970) such that the Economic growth targeted was exceded. However, there still indicators that stood as a defiance to the Economic growth that was attained, because the benefits did not spread to the poorer half of the population.
Hence, Dudley claimed that there was more to Economic growth which he termed Economic development. He outlined 3 major indicators of a country’s Economic Development which are Poverty, Unemployment and Inequality. For him, if a country is able to take these 3 Central problems to a low degree, then such country has been undergoing a period of development.
In his words, “ if one or two of these Central problems have been growing worse, especially if all three have, it would be strange to call the result DEVELOPMENT, even if per capita income has soared” (Seers 1969,pp3-4). It is no wonder he posited that development is about Outcomes and not INCOMES.
In more explicit terms, I would say that, Seers point of emphasis is that a country’s GNP could take a positive leap without a corresponding improvement in poverty, unemployment and Inequality. In other words, Economic Development is beyond Output growth, it boils down to the Improvement of the material well-being of the poorer half of the population. Considering Nigeria as a case study, during the time of Western Imperialism, Nigeria’s exports of cash crops greatly increased as there was a high demand of such in Europe. Thus there was a leap in our GNP. However, there was no transition into development. As one of the indications of Development is the decline in the Agricultural share of GNP compensated by a rise in the Industrial share of the country’s GNP.

2.
Apart from a rise in output, Economic development involves changes in the composition of output, shifts in the allocation of productive resources and elimination of or reduction of poverty, unemployment and Inequality.
As an economy progresses, the composition of it’s output has to change. The composition depends on the type of products i.e. durable and non-durable goods, services) or the type of expenditures carried out within the economy, whether it is on consumer, investment or government spending. Changes in output composition must be considered as it determined the long-run stabilization of a Country’s output. The U.S. saw that sectors in which producers can postpone selling, consumers can postpone buying and sectors whose products are vulnerable to foreign demand and exchange rate fluctuations tend to have volatile output. Hence, the decline in their manufacturing and Agricultural sectors and the relative rise of their financial and services sectors.
Furthermore, as an economy makes transition into development, its productive resources have to be allocated in relation to the composition of output in the economy. Resources have to be fully employed to avoid unemployment. Jack Ma pointed out that while technology advances, not to deprive them of their place in the labor force, but to reduce the extreme working conditions of the people. Technology was created for man, by man, an economy becoming more capital intensive would present opportunities of leisure after a couple of work has been done, hence as an effect of extending the life expectancy of its people. Resource allocation through the market mechanism or Economic Planning by the Government brings about equitable distribution of income thus reducing the inequality gap, seeing that a characteristic of a Less Developed country is the presence of a great divide between the high income earners and low income earners.
Poverty does not only involve low income , it also encapsulates poor living standards, access to knowledge, a healthy lifestyle. Thus, as a nation progresses along the lines of development, there are improvements in these areas.

3.
Amartya Sen posited that Development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom such as the following:
Poverty as well as tyranny
For Sen, poverty was seen as an absolute term. For he defined poverty as failure to achieve certain minimum capabilities and according to him, the lack of capabilities is absolute. His point was, poverty is not determined by one’s lowness in income but it is a lack of individual capabilities to enjoy basic doings and beings of human life. Development also, for him, is enhanced by democracy not tyranny. Where there is freedom of speech, of the press, it will necessitate a good government. Development will not strive under a tyrannical rule.
– poor Economic opportunities as well as systematic social deprivation
For Sen, he saw that what people could achieve i.e. their capabilities, is influenced by economic opportunities. There has to be an enabling environment that provides good Economic opportunities for the people, such as encouraging innovation to compete well within the economy and still be relevant in the global space. This is development. There also have to unfreedom from systematic social deprivation, such that everyone has to be able to gain access or participate in the societal life that prevails without any form of inferiority. This is a pointer to reducing the inequality gap between the two extremes classes of the society. Though they could never be the same but to some degree, there should not be outrageous gap between them. Basically, in terms of educational and health services, development occurs when even the have-nots have access to these.

Neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or overactivity of repressive states
There are certain public infrastructure that has to be in place that would help the well-being of the people, such as electricity, water, good road networks. Also, repressive states or governments would do no good to ensure development, because they would stifle the liberty and initiative brought about its people, thinking they are trying to ensure submission and loyalty. Hence , the people are afraid to even think and as such the economy of such state remains stagnant.

Conclusively, why do nations strive for Development, if not for freedom in implicit term. Freedom from unhealthy natural circumstances and even from ourselves. Life is a race, and it is only he that wins that would have the day. Being Developed gives the audacity to preside over crucial matters that would affect humanity. If only U.S. has the capacity to contend with Russia, I believe they would have supported Ukraine. Development is a contention for Dominion.

4.

It is argued that one of the problems of developing nations is the high population rate. Seeing that Development and Population rate are interacting variables, each affects the other. High rate of fertility has its own costs especially in developing countries, such as growing unemployment, high dependency ratio, as well as increased urbanization and congestion.
And so, it is generally held that this increase in population is a natural outcome of women’s lack of economic opportunities. Hence, the motive to enlighten and empower the women. There is an opportunity cost of the mother’s time being lost in being an house wife. Hence, when they are enlightened and empowered sufficiently, there is a marginal contribution of income to the family and the economy. Also, women and children constituting the major clients in the health sector, there would be reduction if not utter elimination of expenditures channeled towards finding corrective measures in treating the mother and her child. As less would spent when enlightened women take precautions in their health and their children.
Notwithstanding, in dealing with matters of National Development, the concept of Sustainability has to be brought in mind. It has to be sustained and by all means enhanced or improved as different civilizations emerge. It is to this end that women are considered as a team player in the issue of National Development. As they are the gateways through which the next generation are born, they are faced with the primary task of not only child-bearing but also child-rearing. And so they have to be sufficiently empowered and invested upon. As they are in the closest position to inculcate moral values, character, mindset, attitudes into the children. However, when the woman is living in depravity, which automatically forms part of her subconsciousness, then there’s no hope to even sustain the very foundations of National Development that the fathers have dug, how much more to sustain it.
Also women endowed with the gift of multitasking, are able to manage their homes. Hence they could apply this skill when given a societal opportunity equal with the male counterpart, not exactly in competition.

5.
Amartya Sen saw Capabilities as the freedom that a person has in terms of the choice of Functionings, giving his personal features ( conversion of characteristics into Functionings ) and his command over commodities. In his bid to make contributions to human development, he posits that what matters for well-being, is not just the characteristics of commodities consumed, but what use the consumer can and does make of commodities. It is to this end he came up with the concept of Functionings, which is what people do or can do with the commodities of given characteristics that they come to possess or control.
A functioning is a valued being or doing, i.e. those things that people have reason to value. And so he outlined several beings and doings that humans have reason to value. Of which are:
Being Healthy; Sen referred to those Countries with high levels of Income but poor health and education standards as cases of Growth without Development. It is believed that Health is Wealth in the sense that instead of channeling one’s resources to combat health issues that is Control measures less would have been spent in taking Preventive measures.
Being well nourished; eating balanced diets is essential for the well-being of a person. Individuals can differ greatly in their abilities to convert the same resources into valuable Functionings. In other words, what one considers worthwhile for his consumption will differ from another, still both are not deprived in any way from making their different choices of their Functionings.
Being well clothed; were a person has the capacity or freedom to appear in public without any sense of inferiority, complex or shame.
Being Literate; this implies being educated, getting access to information.It is education that brings about Innovation as such progress is being made in an economy. Poverty is not streamlined to only low income index, it also encapsulates deprivation of sound education not having access to information. There are different kinds of knowledge for specific accomplishments.
Being able to live long; in advanced economies, workers are paid according to the hours worked. The Labor market is structured like that to give room for leisure, not without the compensation of a high labor rate. This is done knowing fully well that work stress reduces the life expectancy of people. Notwithstanding, Artificial Intelligence has also contributed to improve the living standards of the people. Hence, people are not deprived of gaining access to technologies that will reduce stress and as such extend life expectancy on Earth.
Being Mobile; in a sense implies occupational mobility such that the form of unemployment being considered would be Voluntary unemployment. In other words, being occupationally mobile means that there’s little or no difficulty in switching jobs as it suits one’s choice.
Being able to take part in the community life; this would not be difficult if there are certain commodities that would facilitate such ability. For instance, in the University space, there would be great difficulty to participate in it when there’s no ability to get access to the internet, since we are faced with a time or dispensation where Technology rules.

6.
Values are those principles, standards or qualities that a society or groups within it considers worthwhile or desirable. It has been aeons that mankind has been plagued with the question of What the good life consist? Hence has become a Philosophical Canon, which mankind has sought to answer in different civilizations.
The validity of economic analysis and the correctness of economic prescriptions should always be evaluated in light of the underlying assumptions or value premises, as such three(3) core values have been isolated as the foundations for understanding the inner meaning of development. They are:
Sustenance, the ability to Meet basic needs.
These basic needs are critical to the survival of mankind. They are food, shelter, health and protection. A situation whereby any of these are absent or critically in short supply indicates Absolute Poverty. At least, a basic function of economic activity is to provide sustenance, before other levels of development can be attained. Though a country should experience growth in its GDP, when this is not backed with a corresponding improvement in it’s provisions for sustenance to the least average person in it’s territory, then development is lacking.
Self esteem, to be a Person.
This implies a sense of worth and self-respect. It is considered as having a sense of dignity, identity or recognition. Though, the nature and form of self-esteem may vary from society to society and from culture to culture. However as the world proliferates into a global economy, many societies in the Less Developed Countries (LDCs) seem to lose their economic identity or recognition. This is due to the ascendancy that the Developed countries have attained in both the economical and technological space.
If an economy do not embrace technology advancement such is considered uncivilized and underdeveloped. For instance, in a particular society in the LDCs, thee could be no sense of Economic worth as almost all commodities are imported. Hence, in such location the people live with imported economic value. Even in the global sphere they have no identity, the LDCs have no identity, no personality to project in the Global market.

Freedom from Servitude, to be able to Choose.
Freedom involves an expanded range of choices for societies and their members together with a minimization of external constraints in the pursuit of some social goal – development.
The concept of freedom also encompasses various components such as Political freedom, freedom of expression, political participation, equality of opportunities and also economic freedom. For instance, the supposed technology shipped onto the LDCs from the Advanced economies are substandard, which a trader of electronics will not dare sell in those advanced Nations . Such act is referred to as Dumpling. These LDCs of course have no choice, since it demands a higher cost to acquire such commodities, of which majority of the poor masses would not dare think they could afford, and so they make do with the substandards shipped in from those Economic lords.

7.

Some scholars have argued that happiness has a direct correlation with more income. This they justified with several reasons as follows:
They consider their income to be an end in itself. There are those that desire to have wealth just got the sake of having it, not that because a contingency may arise. And so they derive happiness from having more income.
They believe money is the highest good any man can attain. As money is the primary commodity to obtain other commodities, so more income implies more commodities to obtain hence their happiness increases.
While some other scholars argued that happiness does not have a perfect correlation with income as there are many factors affecting one’s happiness. Happiness is not solely determined by income but other factors such as :
Family relationship
Work Satisfaction
Community and friends
Personal freedom
Personal Value
Health and health care services
Jack Ma once said that money should be seen as a means and not as an end.

8.
Economic growth must precede Economic development. Hence, Economic growth is a necessary condition for Economic development.
The validity of measuring Economic growth could be recorded in at least one or two years. But for Economic development it takes longer to measure as there are a lot of indices by which this is measured.
Economic growth is recorded when there has been a sustained increase in a country’s Output i.e. its GDP in a particular period. Economic Development on the other hand , is recorded when there has been an holistic survey of the economy as a whole with respect to certain indices like the standard of living, health, education.
Economic growth does not take cognizance of non-economic indices as health, education, social and environmental freedom. However, Economic Development outlines all these.
Economic growth is a narrow concept, as its index – the GDP- is a narrow measure of econmic welfare of am economy. Economic Development is a broad concept as it involves changes in the composition of the economy’s output, shift in the allocation of productive resources as well as reduction if not elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment.
Now where is my country in the light of Economic growth and development. Though the major composition of our Output of about 50% is The Service industry like the U.S., we are still no where compared to them. Industry and construction accounts for about 16%, so what would be the actual composition of Industry, seeing that Agriculture contributes 23%. Hence, for development we are no where, we are only riding on past glory which was not even development but Economic growth. Economic development encapsulates other non-economic indices which includes education, of which our educational sector has a lot of setbacks. There is still an outrageous gap between the high income earners and low income earners. Poverty cannot be overemphasized. What about the security situation ?. Nigeria is still developing or rather, underdeveloped.

1.To briefly explain, Economic Growth comes before development. A country can be developed and at the same time have a slow growth.This is to say that development does not equal Growth. This is why, Economic Growth only measures the change in the country GDP, it doesn’t tell so much about the actual welfare of the people, While Economic Development measures the welfare or the well-being of the country. So we can say that development is the outcome of the Economic Growth. Let’s use some key factors of Economic Growth to portray our points.
Higher income: what trigger Growth is increase in income, when there is increase in income, standard of living takes a positive shift.
Higher profit: when a firm has high profit from sales, there is tendency in high rate of investment as they incurr the profits to their business by buying more machines and equipment and these results to change to advanced technology. Job opportunity will increase as they seek to employ more labour.
Fiscal Dividend: The government gets revenue by increasing taxes, in which it is used to provide basic amenities such as Good health care, Good schools and infrastructure.
so, these are the key factors of Economic Growth the outcomes determines if there is economic development.

Inequality: Development is said to be hindered if there is no equality in the standard of living, income is used as the major example, when there is no equal distribution of income in a country, we can’t say the country’s economy is developed. For example, there are set of people that earn more than others, even if income increases, there will be no equality in the standard of living, so although there is growth but development can’t be seen in such economy.
Negative Externalities and sustainability: when a country produces more that it imports, we say the country’s GDP has increased, therefore the country has economic growth. This doesn’t necessarily mean the economy is developed. Why? If toxic smokes released from factors and firms in the cause of production poses as a threat to human health, we say there is no development in a growing economy.
Growth in one dominant sector: using Nigeria as a case study, Nigeria is seen as a country overly dependent on oil, so if this oil sector dominants other sectors in Growth, then there is no development because the growth of one sector is not necessarily going to lead to development.

Therefore, it is true to say that Development is more than Growth, because it looks beyond just increase in GDP, employment and so on. It measures the well-being of the citizens of country, the welfare and standard of living, a country can have the highest GDP but its citizens suffers from poverty. Providing not just employment, adequate health care, Good standard of education, basic amenities, these are what determines the development of a country’s economy.

2. Just like I aforementioned, Growth isn’t Development but outcome or changes in composition of the output. Rise in output maybe part of development but development focus more on the well-being of the people which involves uniformity in the allocation of productive resources, eliminating poverty by increasing profits and income, and not just that, there should be equal distribution of income. Employment by creating job opportunities; these can be achieved if the government embark on projects like building roads, Good health centre and schools, electricity and dams construction. These pave way to job recruitment as demand for labour will be high.

3. Amartya sen revealed that human freedom is both the end and means of development. He went on in his argument that development is the freedom the citizens of a country has. He argues that development entails a set of linked freedoms, political freedom and transparency in relation between people, according to him there are five interconnect sorts of freedom; political freedom, economic opportunity, social opportunity, transparency and security. By offering free public education, health centres, social safety nets, sound macroeconomic policies, increased production and environmental protection.
He also argued that a sustainable development is that which meets the need of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainable Development calls for concerted effort towards building an inclusive, sustainable and resilient future for people. For sustainable development to achieved, it is crucial to harmonise three core elements which are; economic growth, social inclusion and environmental protection. These elements are interconnected and crucial for the well-being of individual and societies.
Eradicating poverty in all its forms and dimension is an indispensable requirement for sustainable development. To this end, there must be promotion of sustainable, inclusive and equitable economic growth, creating greater opportunities for all, reducing inequalities, raising basic standard of living.

4. Women are the set of human beings that belongs to the female gender. They play the role of mothers, caretakers in family affairs, farmers, educators, entrepreneurs, teachers, e.t.c. It is historic that women play significant roles in societal development and ensure the stability, progress, and long-term development of nations. Women also play the role of decision-makers in homes. Globally, women contribute immensely to agricultural development, comprising about 43% of the world’s agricultural labor force. In some countries, the number of women involved in the agricultural labor force increases to over 70%. Available records indicate that in Africa alone, 80% of agricultural production comes from small farmers, most of whom are rural women. It is noteworthy that agriculture is the bedrock of national development as the best approach to food security, poverty reduction, job creation, and economic stability.

At home, women, notably mothers, play the role in decision-making about family meal planning and diet. Women also initiate and preserve the nutritional and healthcare programs of children at home. In addition, women are not only caring for their children at home but are also the primary caretakers of both children and elders in every country of the world. International studies indicate that women lead in finding solutions to the problems occasioned by a change of political and economic organizations in countries, thereby helping the family adjust to new realities and challenges. Indeed, women are the initiators who play important role in facilitating changes in family life. The UN Women Watch organization asserts that ” rural women play a key role in supporting their households and communities in achieving food and nutritional security, generating income, and improving rural livelihoods and overall wellbeing.

As educators, the role or contribution of women to society’s transition from pre-literate to the literate period is highly significant. Basic education is key to a nation’s ability to develop and achieve sustainable policies and programs. It is evident that education helps to improve agricultural productivity, enhances the status of girls and women, stabilizes population growth rates, enhances environmental protection and, increases the standard of living. It is the mother at home who most often urges children of both genders to attend and stay in school. The role of women is at the front end of the chain of improvement, leading to the family and the community’s long term capacity.

5.Functionings are ‘doings and beings’, that is, various states of human beings and activities that a person has achieved, such as being well-nourished, getting married, being educated, and travelling, while capabilities are the real, or substantive, opportunity that they have to achieve these doings and beings.
Well-nourished: Being well-nourished is one of the important of beings of capabilities in function. A well nourished child with sound health gets his goals achieved and which adds value to the economy.
Being Educated: when a child has attain the highest level of education, with his intelligence and degree acquired, he puts all in the economic activity of the country, it would foster the growth of the country economy which morphs to development.

6. Sustenance:

The life-sustaining basic human needs include food, shelter, health and protection. When any one of these is absent or in critically short supply, a condition of absolute “underdevelopment” exists. People needs food, shelter, health and protection to be able to survive.

Self-esteem:

A second universal component of good life is self- esteem- a sense of worth and self-respect- of not being used as a tool by others for their own ends. Due to the significance attached to material values in developed nations, worthiness and esteem are now-a-days increasingly conferred only on countries that possess economic wealth and technological power- those that have developed.
Now-a-days the Third World seeks development in order to gain the esteem which is denied to societies living in a state of disgraceful “underdevelopment.” … Development is legitimized as a goal because it is an important, perhaps even an indispensable, way of gaining esteem.

Freedom from Servitude:

Arthur Lewis stressed the relationship between economic growth and freedom from servitude when he concluded that “the advantage of economic growth is not that wealth increases happiness, but that it increases the range of human choice.” Wealth can enable a person to gain greater control over nature and his physical environment than they would have if they remained poor.

It also gives them the freedom to choose greater leisure. The concept of human freedom should encompass various components of political freedom, freedom of expression, political participation and equality of opportunity.

7. Well, if what you mean by happiness is freedom then, freedom isn’t just about an increase in income, like I said in this project discussion, freedom is having the power to do something not just the ability to do it. Increase or more income doesn’t necessarily mean or equals freedom.

8.Economic growth is simply all about production, increasing GDP and international trade.
Economic Development involves the well-being of the people, as regards to their freedom from servitude, sustenance and self-esteem.

Using Nigeria as a case study, with the recent happenings in the country, people feeding from hands to mouth, low or no security, economic degradation and poor educational system. And with the growth of the oil sector over the other sectors, I have come to the conclusion that Nigeria is an under-developed country in a growing economy. Its growth fluctuate over time. It doesn’t have steady growth.

name: Omeje Jacinta ukamaka
reg no: 2017/250122
Dept: Economics
Eco 361 assignment
1. According to professor Dudley seers, development occurs when there is reduction or elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment within a growing economy. Writing on the hallmark for Development, Seers argues that “Surely the values we need are staring us in the face, as soon as we ask ourselves: what are the necessary conditions for a universally accepted aim, the realization of the potential of human personality?”(Seers in Baster). Believing that the aim and yardstick of development is implied by this, Seers goes on to put out a number of objectives for development for, developing countries:
-That family incomes should be enough to provide a subsistence package of food, shelter, clothing, and footwear.
-That jobs should be available to all family heads, not only because this will ensure that allocation of income will generally achieve subsistence consumption levels, but also because a job is something without which personality cannot develop.
-That access to education should be raised and literacy ratios raised.
-That the population should be given a chance to be involved in government.
-That national independence should be achieved in the sense that the views of other governments do not largely predetermine one’s own government’s decisions.
2. Economic development is said to be the process of structural transformation with continuous technological innovation and industrial upgrading, which increase labor productivity, and accompanied improvements in infrastructure and institution, which reduce transaction costs. The first generation structural theorists highlighted the centrality of capital in the growth process and place the shift of resources from labour to capital intensive modern sectors at the nexus of the growth process.
However, the ‘New Structural Economics’, as they are known to be called now, emphasises that growth has the capacity to reduce poverty if it ensures that a country’s productive resources, including its labor force, are directed to increasingly high productivity activities. An extension of more productive and dynamic sectors can push the economy into a efficacious circle in which the growth of productive employment, productive capacities and earnings mutually reinforce each other to accelerate growth and reduce poverty. When labour and other resources move from less productive to more productive activities, the economy grows even if there is no productivity growth within sectors. Structural change thus removes the limitations from productivity growth. Typically, in a developing economy labour productivity in primary sectors is relatively lesser than in non-primary sectors. It means that a shift of resources from the primary to non-primary sectors is growth promoting. This type of structural change can contribute significantly to poverty reduction by raising income levels.
Thus, economic growth that is accompanied with structural change(development) generates productive employment, improves earnings and contributes to poverty reduction.
3.
4. Women playing the role of mothers and care givers:
At home, women, mostly mothers, play the role in decision-making about family meal planning and diet. Women also initiate and preserve the nutritional and healthcare programs of children at home. In addition, women are not only caring for their children at home but are also the primary caretakers of both children and elders in every country of the world. International studies indicate that women lead in finding solutions to the problems posed by a change of political and economic organizations in countries, thereby helping the family adjust to new realities and challenges. Indeed, women are the initiators who play important role in ensuring changes in family life. According to the UN Women Watch organization, rural women play a major role in supporting their households and communities in getting food and nutritional security, generating income, and improving rural livelihoods and overall wellbeing.
Women playing the role of educators:
As educators, the role of women to society’s change from pre-literate to the literate period is highly significant. Basic education is key to a nation’s ability to develop and achieve sustainable policies and programs. It is clearly seen that education helps to improve agricultural productivity, enhances the status of girls and women, stabilizes population growth rates, enhances environmental protection and, heighten the standard of living. It is the mother at home who most often ensures that children attend and stay in school. The role of women is at the front end of the chain of improvement, leading to the family and the community’s long term capacity.
Women playing a role in the labour force:
The role of women in providing an improved and sustainable workforce is also significant and exciting. According to research, the women’s share of the global workforce is about 45.5%. Women’s formal and informal labor can change a community from a relatively independent society to a participant in the national economy. It is obvious that despite the cultural, social, and political lapse of women, small businesses owned and managed by women in rural communities are not only growing beyond family lifelines but can also form a networked economic foundation for future generations. The role of women in the urban and rural workforce has increased greatly in recent times.
Women playing the role of voluteers in international and local organizations:
The role of women as volunteers in local and international organizations for development has global collective recognition. The global Volunteers Community Development work in host countries worldwide strengthens women’s and children’s capacity and supports their sustained health and development. Under the development and direction of local leaders, women volunteers help ensure academic accessibility, foster parental involvement, offer psycho-social support, provide nutrition and health education, fund girls’ scholarships, construct schools and educate children and women through programmed extension works.
5.
6. There are three core values of development:
(i) sustenance
(ii) self- esteem
(iii) freedom.
(i) sustenance: this term is also known as “the ability to meet basic needs. Everybody has certain basic needs which are necessary for their survival. They consist of food, shelter, health and protection. If any one of them is not provided for, or in short supply in any economy it would show the state of under-development. Therefore, the purpose of economic development and economic activity is to make the possible efforts whereby the helplessness and misery of the people which arises due to lack of food, shelter, health and protection could be removed.
(ii) Self-Esteem: another universal component of the good life is a self-esteem, a sense of worth and self-respect. It means that each person should be given his due respect and due right. Each person is desirous of his prestige, identity and recognition, though all of such values seems different from country to country and from society to society. It is being observed now a days that when the process of economic development starts in a country the inequalities in the distribution of income increase. Because of such inequality the rich class considers itself superior to the poor. In this way, the poor segment of the society suffers from inferiority complex which leads to affect their efficiency.
(iii) Freedom: The third universal value required for economic development is associated with human freedom. By freedom it means the libration from alienating material conditions of life and from social servitude to nature, ignorance, other people, misery, institutions and dogmatic beliefs.
7. The relationship between income and happiness has been studied by many researchers, especially economists. According to Hernandez-Murillo (2010), Richard Easterlin was the first modern economist who studied the association between income and happiness (as cited in Como, 2011). Easterlin has done extensive research regarding the income-happiness relationship. Through his researches, Easterlin (2001) found three empirical regularities to explain his theory. Firstly, at a given time people with higher income are happier than those with less income. Secondly, over the life cycle, the level of happiness remains stable in spite of a growth in the level of income.
The study collected its data from an already existing dataset by selecting only 959 participants in New York City. The results indicated that there is a statistically significant positive relationship between income and happiness. Thus, the answer to the research question is “yes” people who have more money are happier than those who have less.
8. Economic growth is an increase in a country’s real level of national output which can be caused by an increase in the quality of resources, quantity of resources & improvements in technology or in another way an increase in the value of goods and services produced by every sector of the economy. Economic Growth can be measured by an increase in a country’s GDP while Economic development is an increase in living standards, improvement in self-esteem needs and freedom from oppression as well as a greater choice. The most accurate method of measuring development in the Human Development Index which takes into account the literacy rates & life expectancy which affect productivity and could lead to Economic Growth. It also leads to the creation of more opportunities in the sectors of education, healthcare, employment and the conservation of the environment. It implies an increase in the per capita income of every citizen.

Professor Dudley sees development as a situation whereby one is incomprehensibly allowed to do things In order for the situation to change
It dives further into saying that when there’s no inequality,food, poverty, unemployment that if all has been declined from all high levels then no doubt there has been a period of development in the country concerned
The direct link between per capital and number living in poverty is income distribution so it is certain that poverty will be eliminated if any given rate of economic growth is achieved

2.when there’s increase in output,change in the productive resources of the country positively, elimination or reduction of poverty, inequality and so on we can gradly say that economic development is gradually put in place
Economic development occurs with this mentioned ,so when a country is experiencing those above there are experiencing development

3.The capability approach for sen focuses on the people ,it focuses on individuals unlike the basic needs and standards of living approach that concentrate on households.more to that it views goal of development as expansion of people’s freedom not expansion of economy
The amartya Sen approach puts “people first”

4.Throughout history, the central role of women in society has ensured the stability, progress and long-term development of nations. Globally, women comprise 43 percent of the world’s agricultural labor force – rising to 70 percent in some countries. For instance, across Africa, 80 percent of the agricultural production comes from small farmers, most of whom are rural women. It’s widely accepted that agriculture can be the engine of growth and poverty reduction in developing nations. Women, notably mothers, play the largest role in decision-making about family meal planning and diet. And, women self-report more often their initiative in preserving child health and nutrition.

5.Lifes expectancy and ability to live long
How well nourished an individual is according to amartya Sen more to that access to health services and maintaining health
How literate one is and access to education
Being well clothed
Being Mobile and able to do physical activities
Access to taking part in a community and having a voice within that
These are amartya Sen approaches to economic development

6.sustaineance
The ability to meet basic needs such as food ,
Shelter, healthcare. When these are in critical short supply a nation is said to be underdeveloped
Self esteem.
To have dignity, honour and respect within working and private sectors of life . When one is not easily used to be exploited by others
Freedom of servitude
Access to choice through means such as voting and career

7.simply put, people for feeling pleasure during their lifetime need to have balance in not only quantity of life but also the quality of it. An obvious example of this is a wealthy person who got injured in a car accident and suffering from some disabilities; So this person never feels happy in his personal life because his health had been put into jeopardy and despite the fact that he has successful person economically, can not enjoy of his life due to not having perfect health.

8.Economic growth is the rise in the value of everything produced in the economy. It also implies the yearly increase in the GDP or GNP in Percentage terms, it alludes to a considerable rise in the per capital national product over a period while economic development is the increase in the economic wealth of a country or a particular area for the welfare of it’s residents here economic growth is essential but not the only condition for economic development
So in my country Nigeria we are currently undergoing economic growth

Anyanwu Paschal Ositadinma
2019/244008

1. Prof. Dudley Soothsayers contends improvement is about results i.e improvement occurswith the decrease and disposal of neediness, imbalance and joblessness in a developing economy.
Subsequently contrasted with the target of improvement, financial development is not difficult to understand however improvement isn’t that simple to acknowledge except if the human negative states of carrying on with each day life are tackled really at that time might advancement at any point be said to happen in a developing economy.

2. In this we can say that economy improvement is preposterous without development however development is conceivable without improvement since development is simply expansion in Gross domestic product and GNP so matter the nation or circumstance being developed of a specific culture development should happen.

3. Indeed I concur on the grounds that a general public of opportunity makes a way of certainty of individuals making an honest effort to foster the general public however without opportunity of decision or discourse there’s no certainty thus there will be no further improvement it’s very much like structure an organization yet not utilizing workers thoughts to foster the organization same goes for a developing country.

4. Ladies are vital in public advancement on the grounds that starting from the dawn of history God made ladies to help man not to be pointless to man that help implies that any place man stops lady will proceed or see how they might help yet man’s attitude is exceptionally surprising according to lady shouldn’t do anything which is the reason ladies are vital on the grounds that they will assist in fostering the world with man. Ladies ought to really foster the certainty inorder to assist man with fostering the world or the economy.

5. They are made sense of beneath
Having the option to live lengthy: we can do this by fostering our current circumstance, lessening the pace of killings by authorizing regulations and upholding the police.
Being very much supported: food and great water should be given inorder to foster our body and inorder for that we want to foster the imports and commodities of products the checking of said merchandise and the transportation of said products.
Being proficient: for this situation it isn’t simply going to class that can make you get the hang of, gaining from our current circumstance, from individuals, even from kids. Try not to segregate anybody since you went to class gain the positive qualities from the individual and the individual will likewise gain the positive qualities from you which will ultimately advance education and further develop improvement.
Being versatile: when we are being portable we are moving starting with one spot then onto the next and doing one of several things which shows that we are free from even a hint of harm and afterward it increments improvement.

6. The three basic beliefs are:
Food: This is the capacity to meet the essential necessities of the general public a model witll be a family a family can either be atomic or broadened however as long as the fundamental need which is food, sanctuary and dress is given the family will form and be ingested into social government assistance and improvement.
Confidence: this is the capacity of one to know oneself, to find your ability inorder to foster the economy.
Independence from bondage: this is the capacity of decision the certainty to know what, where, how and why you need it, without opportunity of decision the nation can’t create in light of the fact that it will be as though we are slaves or apparatuses to the country which will ultimately prompt ruin. So in a developing economy independence from subjugation is the main guiding principle inorder for the economy to create.

7. There is definitely not an ideal connection however I concur that joy has an immediate relationship with more pay in light of the fact that in my own exploration or in my own seeing more pay can likewise give joy to other people assuming you have more pay than others popular assessment will be your ally it possibly applies assuming that you have great qualities yet more pay makes more satisfaction since it can assist with tackling issues that should be settled in a critical manner like paying of school charges, light expenses and different bills, more pay implies greater diversion e.g looking for new garments and innovation, purchasing a ton of food and different things. So yes with this couple of focuses I caused I to accept that joy has an immediate connection with more pay.

8. Economic development alludes to the expansion in the financial or yield development of a country of a country in a specific period, it happens when there’s a maintained (continuous for something like 1-2 years) expansion in a nation’s result of labor and products.
While
Monetary improvement is the general improvement of the personal satisfaction in a country which incorporates financial development. it happens when the way of life of a larger part of the populace rises including both pay and different aspects like wellbeing and proficiency.
As a country, we are certainly falling being developed on the grounds that expansion in crime percentage, defilement, terrible government, etc and furthermore falling as far as development cuz of ascend in expansion and downturn so our development and improvement is simply stale neither one is developing nor creating.

Ogbonna Chijioke Michael
2019/244473

1.) Professor Dudley Seer argues development is about outcomes that is, development occurs with the reduction and elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment within a growing economy. Discuss.
Professor Dudley Seer propounded his theory of development with emphasis on poverty, inequality and unemployment. He used three indicators which are poverty, inequality and unemployment to cement his argument. That if these indicators are falling then that country is experiencing development but if not, they are not experiencing development.
Before Dudley Seer propounded his theory of development, many economists believed that development is achieved when a country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) grows and the increases are sustained over a long period of time. They believed that when such increases occurred, then that country has achieved development. Also, they believed that economic development is achieved when there is a change in the structure of production and employment so that the share of agriculture in GDP and in employment declines, while that of manufacturing and services increases. These believe made development economists to focus more on industrialization at the expense of agriculture. Based on the believe, many developing countries in the 1960s and 1970s experienced increased in their Gross Domestic Product but the general levels of living of the masses remained unchanged. That is, the increases in growth (GDP) do not have any direct effect on quality of life of the people. These made many economists to reconsider what development really is and hence glamour for direct attack on widespread of poverty, increasing inequality in income distribution and rising unemployment. To them development should have a “human face”. That is, it should be something that should be seen in the lives of the people.
Amongst theseeconomists seeking for a direct approach on development was Dudley Seer, a British Economist who specialized in development economics. He came up with a concept that replaced the growth fetishism with a social development. According to Dudley Seer, development is about the level of poverty, unemployment and inequality in a nation. To him, if these three variables have declined over a period of time, then development has occurred for the nation concerned. But if one or two of these variables have been growing worse, especially if all three have, it would be strange to call the result “development,” even if per capita income has soared. According to Dudley Seer, for a nation to know they are really develop or not, they need to ask themselves three basic questions which are: What has been happening to poverty? What has been happening to unemployment? What has been happening to inequality? To Seer, if all three of these are declining, then beyond doubt, that nation is experiencing development. These mean that true development happened when poverty is reduced or eliminated, unemployment declining and the levels of inequality is reducing. Of course, reduction in these three development indicators will in no doubt increases the well being and quality of life of a nation’s citizens. The World Bank, keyed into Seer’s concepts of development when it looked at development to be advancement in the quality of life that includes increased income, good education, increased health and nutrition, reduction in poverty, hygienic environment, same opportunities, increased personal freedom and a better-off cultural life.” The above World Bank view on development mean it is a multi-dimensional process involving major changes in social structure, national institution and acceleration of economic growth. Economic development encompasses progress in providing livelihood on a sustainable basis, access to education and basic healthcare for the majority of the population.
Therefore, Professor Dudley Seer approach to development is very important in determining the standard of living of a teeming population. Professor Dudley Seer viewed that the government should provide loans to the rural citizens to invest in agriculture in order to tackle poverty because majority of a country’s population resides in the rural areas. Also, loans should be given to the urban youth to invest in small businesses to generate income. On the issue of inequality, the Nigerian government should make policies that will drastically reduce the inequalities ravaging the country. Policies that will heavily tax the rich and use such taxes to provide infrastructures to the poor such as good classrooms for schools, free feeding to encourage the poor to school, good water and health care to increase their lives expectancy, good roads, electricity etc. Government should bring Policy that will make women to fully participate in politics and into political offices. Also, Seer believe that when government bring out policies to engage the youth in entrepreneurship activities, it will reduce unemployment rate and increase employment rate this leading leading to the economic development of a growing nation.
When are these three indication (poverty, inequality and unemployment) are properly looked into and addressed, it will bring about economic development of a nation which also lead to progress of a nation and the place of Professor Dudley Seer approach is very imperative and will be well adopted by nations.
In conclusion, Dudley’s ideas and their usefulness in development throughout the world today will help the government of every country uses it to budget and plan ahead for development. The government is able to allocate the different amounts on a budget for different sectors e.g., education sector, agricultural sector, health sector, industrial and non-industrial sector, and economic sectors, etc.

2.) Apart from a rise in output, economic development changes in composition of output, shift in the allocation of productive resources and elimination or reduction of poverty, inequalities and unemployment. Clearly discuss the above assertion
Since economic development refers to improvement in the standard of living of the people and the increase in the well-being of the people or reduction in misey, suffering and hopelessness. Therefore, economic development will bring about the rise in the production of goods and services because when a country is developing economically, a nation tends to produce more goods and services in order to satisfy its teeming citizens. Also, economic development will also cause a shift in the allocation of productive resources (that is, natural, human and capital resources) in the sense that, when economic development occurring in a country, it tend to stimulate the utilization of natural resources in the production and creation of goods and services in order to generate employment opportunities to individuals of that nation. Also, when a country is developing economically, it will bring about the elimination or reduction of poverty, inequalities and unemployment. Therefore, economic development triggers a rise in the composition of output and lead to the increase in the well-being of the people.

3.) In words of Amartya Sen “Development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom, poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systematic social deprivation neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or over activity of repressive states”. Do you agree. Explain in details.
Yes, I agree with the Words of Amarya Sen. According to Amartya Sen, freedom is both the primary objective of development, and the principal means of development. The human being is an engine of change.According to Sen, development is enhanced by democracy and the protection of human rights. Such rights, especially freedom of the press, speech, assembly, and so forth increase the likelihood of honest, clean, good government. Development is the process of expanding human freedom. It is “the enhancement of freedoms that allow people to lead lives that they have reason to live”. Hence “development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom: poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systemic social deprivation, neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or overactivity of repressive states”.
Sen argues that there are five types of interrelated freedoms, namely, political freedom, economic facilities, social opportunities, transparency and security. The state has a role in supporting freedoms by providing public education, health care, social safety nets, good macroeconomic policies, productivity and protecting the environment. For Sen, “capability deprivation” is a better measure of poverty than low income. While higher GDP does produce improvements in most measures of the quality of life, but there are exceptions.
4.) Critically discuss the role of women in the National Development.
Women are the set of human beings that belongs to the female gender. They play the role of mothers, caretakers in family affairs, farmers, educators, entrepreneurs, teachers, e.t.c. It is historic that women play significant roles in societal development and ensure the stability, progress, and long-term development of nations. Women also play the role of decision-makers in homes. Globally, women contribute immensely to agricultural development, comprising about 43% of the world’s agricultural labor force. In some countries, the number of women involved in the agricultural labor force increases to over 70%. Available records indicate that in Africa alone, 80% of agricultural production comes from small farmers, most of whom are rural women. It is noteworthy that agriculture is the bedrock of national development as the best approach to food security, poverty reduction, job creation, and economic stability.At home, women, notably mothers, play the role in decision-making about family meal planning and diet. Women also initiate and preserve the nutritional and healthcare programs of children at home. In addition, women are not only caring for their children at home but are also the primary caretakers of both children and elders in every country of the world. International studies indicate that women lead in finding solutions to the problems occasioned by a change of political and economic organizations in countries, thereby helping the family adjust to new realities and challenges. Indeed, women are the initiators who play important role in facilitating changes in family life. The UN Women Watch organization asserts that ” rural women play a key role in supporting their households and communities in achieving food and nutritional security, generating income, and improving rural livelihoods and overall wellbeing.
As educators, the role or contribution of women to society’s transition from pre-literate to the literate period is highly significant. Basic education is key to a nation’s ability to develop and achieve sustainable policies and programs. It is evident that education helps to improve agricultural productivity, enhances the status of girls and women, stabilizes population growth rates, enhances environmental protection and, increases the standard of living. It is the mother at home who most often urges children of both genders to attend and stay in school. The role of women is at the front end of the chain of improvement, leading to the family and the community’s long term capacity.
The role of women in providing an improved and sustainable workforce is also significant and exciting. The women’s share of the global workforce is about 45.5%. Women’s formal and informal labor can transform a community from a relatively autonomous society to a participant in the national economy. It is obvious that despite the cultural, social, and political setbacks of women, small businesses controlled by women in rural communities are not only extending beyond family lifelines but can also form a networked economic foundation for future generations. The role of women in the urban and rural workforce has expanded greatly in recent times.
5.) Clearly discuss some important “Beings” and “Doings” in Capacity to Function.
1.) Being able to live long: This is the ability of an individual to live long. There are always ways in which people access to live a long life: eat well, exercise regularly, get plenty of sleep and stay away from bad habits.
2.) Being well-nourished: This is the ability of people to learn how to source and transform whole foods into simple, delicious, satisfying meals to share and savour. There is simply no greater gift in life than to provide what is necessary for optimal health, vitality and well-being.
3.) Being healthy: This is the ability of an individual to live a healthy life. Being healthy means when an individual is free from dieseass and infirmities. Always staying healthy necessitate regular exercise, drinking alot of water, eating balanced diet etc.
4.) Being literate. This is the ability of people to know how to read and write. It connote how individual increase in knowledge as a result of learning in order to improve one’s self.
5.) Being well-clothed: This is the ability of people to wear proper clothing and not dressing improper to expose his or her body. So, being well-clothed is when an individual dress modest and also wearing the proper dress when there’s a change in weather conditions.
6.) Being mobile: This is the ability of people to change location or to move form one place to another as a result of change in work or some other factors. Also, change in weather conditions stimulate the movement of people from on place to another, change in job necessitate the mobility of people etc.

6.) Discuss the three core values of Development with relevant examples
1.) Sustenance: This is the ability of people to meet the basic needs without which life will be impossible. These needs include food, shelter, health and protection. “Absolute underdevelopment” is when any of these is absent or in critically short supply. Without livelihoods and continuous economic progress, the realization of human potential will be much more difficult. It is a fact that no country can be described as fully developed if it cannot provide the people with basic needs e.g., shelter or house, food, clothing and the minimum education standard. For instance, a nation where the availability of the basic needs of life is not met, in such nation, the standard of living will be very low thus leading to poverty and suffering. Hence, this core value of development connote the ability of people to meet the basic needs of life.
2.) Self-Esteem: This is the second core value of development. This value talked about a sense of worth and self respect, a sense of not being used as a tool by others for their own selfish ends. Self-esteem is nowadays increasingly conferred only on countries and individuals that possess economic wealth, especially in Nigeria. True development should accord self esteem to her every of her citizen whether they posses economic power or not. For instance, any society that is committed to improving the lives of its people must also be committed to fulfilling the self-esteem and equal rights for all e.g right to movement, right to vote, freedom of speech etc.3.) Freedom from servitude (ability to choose). This is the third core value. Freedomshould be in form of being freeing from alienating material conditions of life and from social servitude to nature, ignorance, misery and dogmatic beliefs, especially that poverty is predestination”. To be able to make political and economic choice that does not infringe on someone’s rights. Unfortunately, this does not happen in Nigeria. The citizens don’t have the ability to choose, especially their leaders during election because of lots of anomalies such as rigging of election, accompanied by such elections.

7.) Some scholars have argued that happiness has a direct correlation with more income while others disagree with the assertion.
Yes , it is true that when people have more income it leads to happiness as a result of getting things they can buy with money like clothes, foods, cars, houses etc leading to happiness. But I oppose the motion that happiness has direct correlation with more income. Firstly, the relationship between money and happiness for decades and their conclusion is clear: Money buys happiness, but it buys less than most people think. The correlation between income and happiness is positive but modest, and this fact should puzzle us more than it does. After all, money allows people to do what they please, so shouldn’t they be pleased when they spend it? Why doesn’t a whole lot more money make us a whole lot more happy? One answer to this question is that the things that bring happiness simply aren’t for sale. Money allows people to live longer and healthier lives, to buffer themselves against worry and harm, to have leisure time to spend with friends and family, and to control the nature of their daily activities—all of which are sources of happiness. Wealthy people don’t just have better toys; they have better nutrition and better medical care, more free time and more meaningful labor—more of just about every ingredient in the recipe for a happy life. And yet, they aren’t that much happier than those who have less. If money can buy happiness, then why doesn’t it? Because people don’t spend it right. Most people don’t know the basic scientific facts about happiness—about what brings it and what sustains it—and so they don’t know how to use their money to acquire it. Money is an opportunity for happiness, but it is an opportunity that people routinely squander because the things they think will make them happy often don’t.
Most times, people who really have money don’t feel secured and can’t move freely, some even spend their money on daily basis in hospital to treat themselves and family members thus leading to sadness. Therefore, of a truth more income make people feel happy but with some factors explain above, I agree with some scholars that believe happiness doesn’t necessarily have direct correlation with more income.
8.) Distinguish between economic growth and economic development and tell us where we are currently as a nation in terms of growth and development.
Economic growth is considered to be an increase in the production of goods and services by per person in a population, compared from one time period to another. An increase in capital goods, labour forces, new territories, technology, and human capital can also contribute to economic growth. Also, economic growth is the increase in the monetary (income) or output growth of a nation in particular period. It takes place when there is a sustained (ongoing for at least 1-2 years) increase in a country’s output of goods and services. While Economic development is the increase in the standard of living from a low-income economy to a high-income economy. It considers factors such as health, education, working conditions, domestic and international policies, and market conditions with a focus on improving conditions in developing countries.
Currently as a nation called Nigeria, Nigeria economic growth has slowed on the back of declining oil output and moderating non-oil activity. Real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) rose by 3.1 percent year-on-year in the first three quarters of 2022, little more than the annual population growth of 2.6 percent. In terms of the economic development of Nigeria, the living standard indicators reveal, albeit geographically unevenly distributed, that the majority of Nigeria have low living standard on a number of key areas, across the six geopolitical zones and in both urban and rural areas. This shows that the economic development of Nigeria is declining recently as a result of a decrease in the standard of living of its teeming population.

School: University of Nigeria Nsukka
Department: Social science education (Education/Economics)
Course: Development Economics (Eco 361)
Name: Diugwu Salvation Nmesoma
Reg. No: 2019/242289
Lecturer: Dr. Tony Orji
Email address: salvationnmesoma65@gmail.com

(1) Professor duduey seer argues that development is about outcome ie. development occurs with the reduction and elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment within a growing economy discuss?

According to Seer (1969), for a nation to know they are really develop or not, they need to ask themselves three basic questions which are: What has been happening to poverty? What has been happening to unemployment? What has been happening to inequality? To Seer, if all three of these are declining, then beyond doubt, that nation is experiencing development. These mean that true development happened when poverty is reduced or eliminated, unemployment declining and the levels of inequality is reducing. Of course, reduction in these three development indicators will in no doubt increases the well been and quality of life of a nation’s citizens.

I. POVERTY: Poverty costs our economy billions of dollars, annually High rates of poverty hurt everyone because it strips limited resources from the government that could be invested in other areas to promote economic growth.

II. UNEMPLOYMENT: A major economic problem plaguing the under-developed or developing economies is unemployment. This rising trend of unemployment is in contrast with Dudley Seer’s assertion on development. Unemployment is known to be a worldwide economic problem which retards economic growth. It is found to be one of the serious impediments to colossal waste of a country’s manpower resources; hence it generates lower output thereby leading to lower income and sluggish economic growth.

III. INEQUALITY: inequality prevents sustainable development, reduces economic growth and damages social cohesion within societies. There is now an international consensus that reducing inequality is essential to putting an end to poverty by 2030. Inequality threatens long- term social and economic development, harms poverty reduction and destroys people’s sense of fulfilment and self-worth.

(2) Apart from a rise in output, Economic development involves changes in composition of output, shift in the allocation of productive resources and elimination or reduction of Poverty, inequalities and unemployment. Clearly discuss the above assertions.

Economic growth is the means of development while Economic development is the ends of development. Economic growth describes a rise in the production of goods and services in a country or region over a particular period. It is the increase in the value of a country’s economic output. Economic growth is best reflected by an increase in the gross domestic product (GDP). The GDP is the total monetary value attached to all goods and services produced in a country over a specific period of time.while

Economic development refers to the allocation of resources such as land, labor, capital, etc. in a way that has a positive effect on the level of business activity, employment rate, and income distribution. Governments engage in activities to stabilize economic growth, and these activities help to create that leads to community benefits. Economic development is an investment in growing the economy and improving people’s livelihoods and prosperity.

Growth focuses on the output of a country or region, measured by the gross domestic product, which is the total value of the economy’s goods and services over a given period. Conversely, Economic development focuses on the citizens’ quality of life, measured by the Human Development Index, which looks at how the economy affects individuals.

(3) In the words of Amartya sen “development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom, poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systematic Social deprivation neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or over activity of repression states. Do you agree? Explain in detail.

Amartya Sen, Nobel Prize winner in economics, defines development as a process that removes obstructions to human freedom in various dimensions of life, including political participation, economic facility, and social opportunity. He stresses the abolishment of “unfreedoms” such as poverty, famine, starvation, undernourishment, tyranny, poor economic opportunities, systematic social deprivation, and the neglect of public services, intolerance, and repression (Terjesen 2004).

Development as Freedom is an informal text that brings together multidisciplinary insights from politics, economics, ethics, economics, demography, and sociology. Sen frames development as the realization of freedom and the abolishment of ‘unfreedoms’ such as poverty, famine, and lack of political rights. Arguments are strongly supported with vivid accounts of real living and working conditions for men and women in developing communities

Seeing development in terms of the sustaintive freedoms of people has far-reaching implications for our understanding of the process of development and also for the ways and means of promoting it. On the evaluative side, this involves the need to assess the requirements of development in terms of removing the unfreedoms from which the members of the society may suffer. The process of development, in this view is not essentially different from the history of overcoming these unfreedoms While this history is not by any means unrelated to the process of economic growth and accumulation of physical and human capital its reach and coverage go much beyond these variables. Development can be seen, it is argued here, as a process of expanding the real freedoms that people enioy. Focusing on human freedoms contrasts with narrower views of development, such as identifying development with the growth of gross national product, or with the rise in personal incomes, or with industrializations, or with technological advance, or with social modernization. Growth of GNP or of individual incomes can, of course, be very important as means to expanding the freedoms enjoyed by the members of the society. But freedoms depend also on other determinants, such as social and Economic arrangements (for example, facilities for education and health care) as well as political and civil rights.

(4) Critically discuss the central role of women in the national development.

1. THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE WORKFORCE: The median female share of the global workforce is 45.4 percent. Women’s formal and informal labor can transform a community from a relatively autonomous society to a participant in the national economy Despite significant obstacles, women’s small businesses in rural developing communities not only can be an extended family’s lifeline, but can form a networked economic foundation for future generations. The role of women in the urban and rural workforce has expanded exponentially in recent decades.”When women are empowered and can claim their rights and access to land, leadership, opportunities and choices, economies grow, food security is enhanced and prospects are improved for current and future generations.”– Michelle Bachelet.

2.THE ROLE OF WOMEN AS GLOBAL VOLUNTEERS: Global Volunteers’ community development work in host countries worldwide strengthens women’s and children’s capacity and supports their sustained health and development. Under the direction of local leaders, our volunteers help ensure academic accessibility, foster parental involvement, offer psycho-social support, provide nutrition and health education, fund girls’ scholarships, construct schools with girls’ bathrooms, tutor literacy, and numeracy, and so much more. Contact us using the form below to learn how you can contribute to this critical agenda.

3.THE ROLE OF WOMEN AS EDUCATORS: The contribution of women to a society’s transition from pre-literate to literate likewise is undeniable. Basic education is key to a nation’s ability to develop and achieve sustainability targets. It is the mother in the family who most often urges children of both genders to attend – and stay – in school. The role of women is at the front end of the chain of improvements leading to the family’s, the community’s long-term capacity.

ROLE OF WOMEN AS CARETAKERS: Women are the primary caretakers of children and elders in every country of the world. International studies demonstrate that when the economy and political organization of a society change, women take the lead in helping the family adjust to new realities and challenges. They are likely to be the prime initiator of outside assistance, and play an important role in facilitating (or hindering) changes in family life.

(5). Clearly discuss some important “beings” and “doings” in capability to function.

Amartya Sen’s capability approach is a process of development by enhancing people’s capabilities thereby expanding their real freedoms. The capability to function effectively is what matters the most and it goes well beyond the availability of commodities.The capability approach is a theoretical framework that entails two normative claims: first, the claim that the freedom to achieve well-being is of primary moral importance and, second, that well-being should be understood in terms of people’s capabilities and functionings. Capabilities are the doings and beings that people can achieve if they so choose — their opportunity to do or be such things as being well-nourished, getting married, being educated, and travelling; functionings are capabilities that have been realized.

SOME IMPORTANT BEINGS AND DOINGS

1. Being able to live long: Being social and spending time with others can potentially increase your longevity.

2. Being well-nourished:To be ‘Well Nourished’ is to learn how to source and transform whole foods into simple, delicious, satisfying meals to share and savour.

3. Being healthy: Being healthy means that you experience vitality and feel strong, fit, and confident daily. It means being realistic when it comes to food choices, exercise, sleep and work-life balance.

4. Being educated: Being literate means having the skills to be able to read, write and speak to understand and create meaning.

5. Being well-clothed: This means dressed in fine clothing that fits correctly, is appropriate for the situation, and looks well-kept/not shabby or worn down.

6. Being mobile: This means moving, or capable of moving or being moved, from place to place·

7. Being able to take part in the life of community: Being part of an engaging community gives us a sense of belonging. It enables us to share personal relatedness and support perpetual growth of each other, ourselves and our environment

(6) Discuss the three core values of development with relevant examples

According to this approach, development is not just about increasing the availability of commodities (focus of the per-capita income approach) but expanding the capabilities of individuals to use these commodities and enhancing the freedom of choice of people. The three core values of development are;

I. SUSTENANCE: Sustenance is the ability to meet basic needs of people. All people have certain basic needs without which life would be impossible. These basic needs include food, shelter, health, and protection. “Absolute underdevelopment” is when any of these is absent or in critically short supply.

II. SELF-ESTEEM: This is the second core value according to Goulet. This value talked about a sense of worth and self respect, a sense of not being used as a tool by others for their own selfish ends. Goulet believed that development is an important way of gaining self-esteem.

III. FREEDOM FROM SERVITUDE: Human freedom, the ability to choose, is essential for the well being of individuals. Freedom involves an expanded range of choices for societies: economic and political. It involves freedom from bondage, serfdom, and other exploitative economic, social, and political relationships.

(7) Some scholars have argued that happiness has a direct correlation with more income while others disagree with the assertion.
Happiness has a direct correlation with more income

I. HIGHER INCOMES LEAD TO HIGHER LIFE SATISFACTION: People with higher incomes were generally more satisfied with their lives. “It’s not that rich people don’t have problems,” Jachimowicz says, “but having money allows you to fix problems and resolve them more quickly.”

II. REDUCES INTENSE STRESS: There was no significant difference in how often the participants experienced distressing events—no matter their income, they recorded a similar number of daily frustrations. But those with higher incomes experienced less negative intensity from those events.

III. MONEY IS POWER: Findings of the study show that those who earn a higher income were happier, but this was due to the sense of control over their lives that comes with the money. Killingsworth explains: “When you have more money, you have more choices about how to live your life.

IV. “MONEY PROVIDES PEOPLE WITH A SENSE OF AUTONOMY AND FREEDOM TO LIVE THE LIFE THEY WANT TO LIVE,” Killingsworth says. “It’s not necessarily because they’re buying fancier cars and having nicer meals, though they may be, but a lot of what money is doing is allowing them to carry out their intentions and desires as agents in the world as opposed to being overly constrained by resources.”

(8) Distinguish between Economic growth and Economic development and tell us where we are currently as a nation in terms of growth and development.

I. Economic Growth is the positive change in the indicators of economy. While Economic development is the quantitative and qualitative change in an economy.

II. Economic growth is single dimensional in nature as it only focuses on income of the people. While Economic development is multi-dimensional in nature as it focuses on both income and improvement of living standards of the people.

III. Economic growth is the means of development. While Economic developmentIt is the ends of development.

IV. Economic growth is a narrow concept while Economic development is a broader concept.

V. Economic growth is an automatic process that may or may not require intervention from the government while Economic development requires intervention from the government as all the developmental policies are formed by the government.

VI.Economic growth refers to an increase over time in a country’s real output of goods and services (GNP) or real output per capita income. While Economic development includes process and policies by which a country improves the social, economic and political well-being of its people.

VII. Economic growth means an increase in real national income/national output. While Economic development means an improvement in the quality of life and living standards, e.g. measures of literacy, life-expectancy and health care.
THE POSITION OF NIGERIA IN ECONOMY
While Nigeria has made some progress in socio-economic terms in recent years, its human capital development ranked 150 of 157 countries in the World Bank’s 2020 Human Capital Index. The country continues to face massive developmental challenges, including the need to reduce the dependency on oil and diversify the economy, address insufficient infrastructure, build strong and effective institutions, as well as address governance issues and public financial management systems. Inequality, in terms of income and opportunities, remains high and has adversely affected poverty reduction. The lack of job opportunities is at the core of the high poverty levels, regional inequality, and social and political unrest. High inflation has also taken a toll on household’s welfare and high prices in 2020-2022 are likely to have pushed an additional 8 million Nigerians into poverty. GDP Growth Rate in Nigeria averaged 0.77 percent from 2010 until 2022, reaching an all time high of 12.12 percent in the third quarter of 2020 and a record low of -14.66 percent in the first quarter of 2022. Nigeria is in recession.

Reference
Aaron D I., Forongn Aivin D.(2020).Theory of Development on the Nigeria Economy International Journal of Research and Review Vol.7 retrieved from Website: http://www.ijrrjournal.com.

Emma kerr (2022) does money make you happy? retrieved from https://www.google.com/url?

Michelle Grab (2019).Global role of women retrieved from email@globalvolunteers.org

Study.Com (2022)Economic Growth vs.Development retrieved from https://study.com on 18th December, 2022.

United nations development programs (2007) Millennium development goals retrieved from http://www.undp.org/mdg/goallist/shtml.

1. Dudley Seers, first Director of IDS, argued that “the focus on national income as a target for achieving poverty reduction avoided the real problems of development” and recommended “redefining how development was measured”. In this paper, he offered policy recommendations to incorporate more socially-relevant measures to better address development problems, focusing on education, population growth, and political independence. Seers argued “that there is no real ‘development’ when the benefits of technology and progress helped only a small number of people in the developed world, who are already relatively rich.” Furthermore, “if governments become more interested in social measurements then statistics offices would produce more appropriate information” Apparently, the Indian Government had already tried to incorporate such measures in its National Household Survey of 1962. (ID21)

2. Lack of inclusive economic growth and jobs, insecure jobs and low wages, and limited livelihoods and opportunities, result in poverty and the inability to escape poverty (Haughton & Khandker, 2009; Handley et al., 2009; Shepherd, 2011; von Braun et al., 2009). High levels of inequality can also impede poverty reduction by undermining the sustainability of economic growth, and through its negative impacts on human capital and unexploited talent, institutional legitimacy and social cohesion (Poverty Analysis Discussion Group, 2012; World Bank, 2006). Poor governance can sustain poverty and make it difficult to generate pro-poor growth and to create institutions to tackle problems (Handley et al., 2009). A weak civil society makes it harder to hold governments to account on their measures to address poverty and inequality (Handley et al., 2009). Lack of respect for human rights can cause multidimensional poverty through denial of the right to education, health, or livelihoods (Handley et al., 2009; von Braun et al., 2009).

Shocks, especially in combination or in a sequence, together with low levels of resilience can lead to extra expenses that plunge households into poverty. Shocks are a major driver of vulnerability and important factors push into poverty, while also serving to keep people poor. Shocks include harvest failures, natural disasters, food price increases, market failures and volatility, conflict and displacement, and health shocks (Shepherd, 2011; Handley et al., 2009; Poverty Analysis Discussion Group, 2012; von Braun et al., 2009). Conflict causes serious disruption to people’s lives and impedes countries’ growth (Handley et al., 2009; von Braun et al., 2009). Climate change is increasing the risk of some of these shocks (von Braun et al., 2009; Chant, 2010; Shepherd et al., 2013). The global recession has increased the numbers of people in poverty as a result of falling employment, reduced real wages, and declining remittances (von Braun et al., 2009).

As a result of discrimination, and historical and current exclusion from resources, people experiencing gender, ethnic, and racial and other inequalities often experience poverty. For example, households headed by women may be poorer because they often have low levels of literacy, are paid lower wages, and have less access to land or equal employment (Handley et al., 2009; von Braun et al., 2009; Haughton & Khandker, 2009; Koser in Chant, 2010). Low capabilities, including in relation to health and nutritional status, human capital (education and skills), and physical and social assets (shelter, land, access to a social networks etc.) determine people’s ability to generate income and increase the chances of poverty and the intergenerational transmission of poverty (Handley et al., 2009; Behrman et al., 2013; von Braun et al., 2009; Haughton & Khandker, 2009). As a result of the constraints imposed on them by extreme poverty (lack of credit, high vulnerability to external shocks, lack of energy, few observations of others’ success), people can behave in a way that traps them in poverty (von Braun et al., 2009).

3. In the words of Amartya Sen, Development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systematic social deprivation neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or over activity of repressive states.1 Economic development is not possible without growth but growth is possible without development because growth is just increase in GNP. It does not have any other parameters to it. When given conditions of population improves then we can say that this is also an indicator of economic Development.

4. In Africa, the vulnerable conditions of women are more critical, given lingering gender inequalities, domestic violence, lack of social protection, among other issues, that exacerbate injustice and privation. These and many more limit their ability to reach their full potential.

Nigeria is one of the countries where women have faced challenges and discrimination for reasons of their sex and wrongful perception that women belong to a lesser class than their male counterparts; a perception strengthened by traditional and cultural practices. Be that as it may, Nigeria has continued to develop and implement national strategies and plans for the advancement of women in leadership and managerial roles in the form of amending legislation, policy and institutional framework as it affects the full promotion and protection of the rights of women. In this year alone, the Federal Government has re-enacted several criminal laws to reflect a gender perspective and to ensure that restorative justice is incorporated for victims of crime, who are noted to be mostly women. These include the Administration of Criminal Justice Act which is applicable in all federal courts, and the Trafficking in Persons Law Enforcement and Administration Act. Another model legislation in this regard is the Violence
Against Persons Act (VAPP) 2015 which creates a broader legal framework for the prevention of all forms of violence, including rape, abolishes Female Genital Mutilation, unfair and discriminatory widowhood practices and other harmful traditional practices.

It further makes provision for protection, compensation and rehabilitation for victims of violence. The government of Nigeria has also approved a National Gender Policy which acknowledges the attainment of gender equality as not only as an end in itself, but as a prerequisite for the achievement of sustainable development. In addition, there exists a National Policy for Protection and Assistance to Victims of Trafficking which provide a broad framework for providing protection and assistance to trafficked persons.

5. Accoriding to Sen’s capabilities approach, development should focus on maximising what an individual can choose to achieve in life such as the ability to choose the many different cultural values and practices to adopt etc. This will ultimately affect the individual’s well-being which is defined as the actual enjoyment of the individual’s choices deriving from the range of options available to them. Therefore, unlike utilitarianism and libertarianism, the capability and well-being approach look at the range of options available for the individual to choose from and the freedom to exercise that choice. 

Once looked in this way, our approach to poverty will be holistic and far-ranging. It will look at not just economic measures but measures of human rights and access. As a guidance, Amartya Sen proposed that there are five general freedoms which underpinscapabilities, the derogation of which will give rise to deprivation or poverty:

Political freedom including civil rights;

Economic facilities which includes access to credit;

Social opportunities which include arrangements for access to health care, education and other social services;

Transparency in relations between people and between people and governments; and

Protective security which includes social and economic safety nets such as unemployment benefits and famine and emergency relief.

Through this lens, poverty is no longer confined to the issue of income and education but rather looks at the idea of whether an individual is able to enjoy the full range of choices and then have the actual ability to realise the choice that the individual has made. In this lens, poverty is now seen as deprivation of choices available for an individual to live the life they have reason to value and also the deprivation of the individual’s abilities to exercise that choice.

6. Sustenance

Sustenance refers to the basic needs of a human being without which survival would not be possible. These needs include food, shelter, security and good health. Shortage of any of these necessities implies a situation of severe underdevelopment of the economy. Development, therefore, must lead to the reduction of these shortages and fulfil these basic needs of the population. The benefits of growth must be accompanied by a reduction in this absolute poverty situation. As a result, improvement in the quality of overall life in an economy is bound to occur.

Self-Esteem

Every individual is entitled to a sense of self-worth or self-respect. Although the nature of self-esteem may change with society or the economy, the basic idea remains the same. All people have the right to a life of dignity and honour. Respect, however, is often attached to wealth and the underdevelopment of an economy can be a burden on people’s self-esteem. Hence to promote self-worth, development must be spread across the whole economy and not just certain sections within it.

Freedom

Freedom refers to not just freedom from servitude, but also from discrimination, oppressive beliefs and practices. Equal opportunity and freedom in every aspect of the social, legal, cultural and political situation are necessary for every individual. Everyone must be free to choose and have control over their own life and actions. Growth without freedom has been observed in many nations, which defeats the purpose of development.

7. How often have you willingly sacrificed your free time to make more money? You’re not alone. But new research suggests that prioritizing money over time may actually undermine our happiness.

In a recent study, more than 1,000 students graduating from the University of British Columbia completed an assessment measuring whether they tend to value time over money or money over time. The majority of students reported prioritizing time — but not by much. Nearly 40% reported prioritizing money.

To find out how this choice correlated with their cognitive and emotional well-being, the students’ level of happiness was measured both prior to graduation and a year down the line. Among other measures, they were asked to report on their life satisfaction by answering the question, “Taking all things together, how happy would you say you are?” on a scale from 0-10, with 0 = not at all and 10 = extremely.

The researchers found that the students who prioritized money ended up less happy a year after graduation, compared to their classmates who chose to prioritize time. The results remained the same even after controlling for their happiness before graduation and accounting for their various socioeconomic backgrounds.

Of course that doesn’t mean that you should turn down the next raise you’re offered. A mountain of evidence shows that, on average, wealthier people are happier. But making lots of money will not inevitably boost your happiness. How you spend, save, and think about money shapes how much joy you get from it.

To the point, another recent study that surveyed more than 500 people in the U.K. shows that the amount of money we see in our checking and savings accounts impacts our happiness more than our incomes. Those of us who see a depressingly low number every time we go to the bank tend to feel worse than those who don’t, incomes aside.

The good news is that building up just a small reserve of cash can make a difference, and this is true for people who are still trying to escape debt as well. When we surveyed more than 12,000 people who had previously applied for loans to eliminate their credit card debt, we found that those who had at least $500 cash on hand showed 15% higher life satisfaction.

Still, the idea of saving cash, even a small amount, can be intimidating. You may have anxieties about cutting back on expenses, creating a budgeting plan, or making sacrifices. That’s why we propose a different approach. Begin by answering these two questions:

What do I buy that isn’t essential for my survival?

Is the expense genuinely contributing to my happiness?

If the answer to the second question is no, try taking a break from those expenses, even just for a few weeks. But if the expense does make you happy, go ahead and enjoy it, without beating yourself up. Let’s look at ways you can choose to spend your money right now that are most likely to bring you happiness.

8. Economic growth measures an increase in Real GDP (real output). GDP is a measure of the national income / national output and national expenditure. It basically measures the total volume of goods and services produced in an economy.

Economic development

Development looks at a wider range of statistics than just GDP per capita. Development is concerned with how people are actually affected. It looks at their actual living standards and the freedom they have to enjoy a good standard of living.

NAME: NWAIGBO NZUBECHUKWU VICTORY
REG NO: 2019/247274
DEPARTMENT: ECONOMICS
COURSE TITLE: DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS 1
COURSE CODE: ECO 361
AN ASSIGNMENT

Question 1, Professor Dudley Seers argues that development is about outcomes ie, development occurs with the reduction and elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment within the growing economy. Discuss
According to Professor Dudley Seer (1969), for a nation to know they are really develop or not, they need to ask themselves three basic questions which are: What has been happening to poverty? What has been happening to unemployment? What has been happening to inequality? To Prof Dudley Seer, if all three of these are declining, then beyond doubt, that nation is experiencing development. These mean that true development happened when poverty is reduced or eliminated, unemployment declining and the levels of inequality is reducing. Of course, reduction in these three development indicators will in no doubt increases the well been and quality of life of a nation’s citizens.
The World Bank (1991) keyed into Seer’s concepts of development when it looked at development to be advancement in the quality of life that includes increased income, good education, same opportunities, increased personal freedom and a better-off cultural life.”
To Goulet(1971) development is about sustained elevation of an entire society and social system towards a better or more human life.

Question 2, Apart from a rise in output, Economic development involves changes in the composition of output, shift in the allocation of productive resources and elimination or reduction of poverty , inequalities and unemployment. Clearly discuss the above assertion.
Economic growth is the most powerful instrument for reducing poverty and improving the quality of life in developing countries. The increase in productivity of a country’s economic activity allow firms to produce greater output for the same level of input, even higher Gross Domestic Product if the level and composition of output change, the input-output coefficients change so that there seems to be no room for a consideration of demand.
Development could be seen as involving the provision of basic needs of the people, which us the target population as a subject rather than an object. As discussed by Dudley Seers the purpose of development is to reduce poverty, inequalities and unemployment.
Reducing unemployment is one of the main causes of eliminating poverty and inequalities. Moreover, a reduction in inequality with corresponding reduce poverty.

Question 3, In the words of Amartya Sen “Development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom, poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systematic social deprivation neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or over activity of repressive states. Do you agree? Explain in details
Development can be seen as a process of expanding the freedoms that people enjoy. Viewing development in terms of expanding substantive freedoms directs attention to the ends that make development important, rather than merely to some of the means that, inter alia, play a prominent part in the process.
Sometimes the lack of the substantive freedoms relates directly to economic poverty, which robs people of the freedom to satisfy hunger, or to achieve sufficient nutrition, or to obtain remedies for treatable illnesses, or the opportunity to be adequately clothed or sheltered, or to enjoy clean water or sanitary facilities. In still other cases, the violation of freedom results directly from a denial of political and civil liberties by authoritarian regimes and from imposed restrictions on the freedom to participate in the social, political and economic life of the community.
Freedom is central to the process of development for two distinct reasons: Firstly, The evaluative reason: assessment of progress has to be done primarily in terms of whether the freedoms that people have are enhanced and Secondly, The effectiveness reason: achievement of development is thoroughly dependent on the free agency of people.

Question 4, Critically discuss the Central Role of women in the National development.
Women play significant roles in societal development and ensure the stability, progress, and long-term development of nations. They play the role of mothers, caretakers in family affairs, farmers, educators, entrepreneurs, teachers, e.t.c.
Globally, women contribute immensely to agricultural development, comprising about 43% of the world’s agricultural labor force. In some countries, the number of women involved in the agricultural labor force increases to over 70%.
At home, women, notably mothers, play the role in decision-making about family meal planning and diet. women are not only caring for their children at home but are also the primary caretakers of both children and elders in every country of the world.
As educators, the role or contribution of women to society’s transition from pre-literate to the literate period is highly significant. Basic education is key to a nation’s ability to develop and achieve sustainable policies and programs.
The role of women in providing an improved and sustainable workforce is also significant and exciting. Women’s formal and informal labor can transform a community from a relatively autonomous society to a participant in the national economy.

Question 5, Clearly discuss some important “Beings” and “Doings” in capability to function.
A, Being able to live long: means striving for your maximum potential age. This Potential can be reach by practicing healthy behaviour and attitudes.
B, Being well nourishment: is having been provided with plenty of the material necessary for life and growth. Some activities that help for the nourishment of our body is being physically active: Exercise busts stress, boosts the mood, and elevates our energy level, not to mention the heart health benefits.
Eat well. That means eat healthy. The mountain of studies supporting a whole-foods, plant-based diet for our health is almost as large as the exercise one and with a refreshing amount of sleep.
C, Being Healthy: This means being in a state of complete, physical, mental, and social well being and not merely the absence of diseases, infirmity and we can improve our health through eating a well-balanced, low fat diet with lots of fruits, vegetables and whole grains, going for medical checkups and engage in regular exercise.
D, Being Literate: means having the skills to be able to read, write and speak to understand and create meaning. It also mean having the ability to produce, interpret and understand language appropriately for these social contexts. The way we can improve our literacy is our ability to read educative books ( Motivational books, Academic books, Spiritual books), by attending Conferences and Seminars to improve our knowledge.
E, Being well Clothed: means dressed in good quality clothes. We should be well clothed to make a good impression about ourselves, it boost our confidence, it enables us to express ourselves: it reflects our mood, style. Being well clothed improves our productivity and creativity.
F, Being Mobile: This means being able to move freely or easily, Being able or willing to move easily or freely between occupation place or residence or social class without restrictions.
G, Being able to take part in the life of the Community: means being able to participate on community activities which gives a sense of belonging. It enables us to share personal relatedness and support perpetual growth of each other, ourselves and our environment. It enables the individuals to engage in meaningful activities to support and improve upon social wellbeing.

Question 6, Discuss the three Core values of Development with relevant examples.
Sustenance
Sustenance refers to the basic needs of a human being without which survival would not be possible. These needs include food, shelter, security and good health. Shortage of any of these necessities implies a situation of severe underdevelopment of the econo fulfil these basic needs of the population.
Self-esteem
Every individual is entitled to a sense of self-worth or self-respect. Although the nature of self-esteem may change with society or the economy, the basic idea remains the same. All people have the right to a life of dignity and honour. Respect, however, is often attached to wealth and the underdevelopment of an economy can be a burden on people’s self-esteem. Hence to promote self-worth, development must be spread across the whole economy
Freedom from servitude
Freedom refers to not just freedom from servitude, but also from discrimination, oppressive beliefs and practices. Equal opportunity and freedom in every aspect of the social, legal, cultural and political situation are necessary for every individual. Everyone must be free to choose and have control over their own life and actions.

Question 7, Some Scholars have argued that happiness has a direct correlation with more income while other disagree with the assertion.
Most of us have heard that money can’t buy happiness. But the way you view wealth and materialism may have a significant effect on how satisfied and happy you are with your life, according to a new study published in the journal Applied Research in Quality of Life.
Money can be a tool to motivate you to achieve major milestones in your life, which can make you feel happier in the long run,”.
Does money make people happy? We don’t have all the answers by any means, but we do know much more about happiness than ever. And the bottom line is that scientific research suggests that most of the things that people believe make them happy really won’t—at least not in the long run.
Well, research shows that it’s certainly difficult to be truly happy if you live in poverty. If you’re always hungry or cold or living in unsafe surroundings or always owe somebody money, happiness can be elusive. So, below a certain income level, poor people are in fact less happy and less satisfied with their lives than most of us. But above the poverty level, things get complicated.
Researchers at Princeton University analyzed data from a sample of over 450,000 adults in the United States. These respondents reported their annual income, and they rated how much they experienced positive emotions on the previous day. The results showed that, up until an income of somewhere between $60,000 and $75,000—in 2010 dollars—more money was associated with feeling a little bit more happy.
Money “Fixes Problems”
The reason that money increases happiness up to a point seems to be that having a certain amount of money helps to fix certain problems in life that make people stressed out and unhappy. So, it’s not so much that money makes people happy as that money can help to solve problems that would otherwise lower our happiness.
Many people have trouble reconciling this finding with the fact that they know that they feel happy when they get a raise at work, even a small raise. Or they may even feel happy when they find a quarter on the sidewalk! But that’s a very fleeting feeling.
The day you get your raise, you probably are happier; and maybe even the day after that. But how long does that glow last? Many people think that money will bring them lots of happiness for a long time, but it actually brings them only a little happiness for a short time.

Question 8, Distinguish between Economic Growth and Economic Development and tell us where we are currently as a nation in terms of growth and development.
I, Economic Growth: is the positive change in the indicators of economy while Economic development is the quantitative and qualitative change in an economy.
II, Economic Growth refers to the increment in amount of goods and services produced by an economy while Economic development refers to the reduction and elimination of poverty, unemployment and inequality with the context of growing economy.
III, Economic growth relates a gradual increase in one of the components of GDP; consumption, government spending, investment or net exports while Economic development relates to growth of human capital indexes and decrease in inequality. It is concerned with how people are affected.
IV,Economic growth is single dimensional in nature as it only focuses on income of the people which we have that Economic development is multi-dimensional in nature as it focuses on both income and improvement of living standards of the people.
V, Economic development requires intervention from the government as all the developmental policies are formed by the government while Economic growth is an automatic process that may or may not require intervention from the government.
VI, Economic growth is more relevant metric for assessing progress in developed countries while
More relevant to measure progress and quality of life in developing countries.
Economic growth can be referred to as the increase that is witnessed in the monetary value of all the goods and services produced in the economy during a time period. It can be measured in terms of the increase in the aggregate market value of additional goods and services produced by using economic concepts such as GDP and GNP. While Economic development refers to the process by which the overall health, well-being, and academic level of the general population of a nation improves.
It is the qualitative improvement in the life of the citizens of a country and is most appropriately determined by the Human Development Index (HDI). The overall development of a country is based on many parameters such as the creation of job opportunities, technological advancements, standard of living, living conditions, per capita income, quality of life, improvement in self-esteem needs, GDP, industrial and infrastructural development, etc.
Nigeria as a nation is in the stage of Economic growth and is described by nations as developing country, third world country, underdeveloped country. For a country to be called a developed country or reach the stage of Economic development, such country should be able to improve the overall wellbeing and general population. There must be qualitative improvement of the lives of the citizens by reducing the rate of poverty, creation of job opportunities, creation of necessary infrastructure which Nigeria as a nation has failed to attain so the country Nigeria is at the stage of Economic growth which hopefully will not reduce overtime.

University of Nigeria, Nsukka
Department: Economics
Name: Igbadi Odiya Danladi
Reg No: 2019/244347
Email: igbadidanladi424@gmail.com
Date: 17/12/2022
QUESTION ONE
ANSWER;
Dudley Seer was a British trained in Cambridge as a development economist. He emphasized on the significance of social development in place of growth fetishism of the neoclassical approach to development. According to Seer (1969), for a nation to know they are really develop or not, they need to ask themselves three basic questions
which are: What has been happening to poverty? What has been happening to unemployment? What has beenhappening to inequality? To Seer, if all three ofthese are declining, then beyond doubt, that nation is experiencing development. These mean that true development happened when poverty is reduced or eliminated, unemployment declining and the levels of inequality is reducing. Of course, reduction in these three development indicators will in no doubt increases the well been and quality of life of a nation’s citizens. The World Bank (1991) keyed into Seer’s concepts of development when it looked at development to be advancement in the quality of life that includes increased
income, good education, increasedhealth and nutrition, reduction in poverty, hygienic
environment, same opportunities, increased personal freedom and a better-off cultural life.” The above World Bank view on development mean it is a multi-dimensional process involving major changes in social structure, national institution and acceleration of economic growth. Economic development encompasses progress in providing livelihood on a sustainable basis, access to education and basic healthcare for
the majorityof the population (Belshaw &Livingstone, 2002). Sen (1999) viewed development as freedom and the capability to function. According to him, for a person to be classified as poor and non-poor, it depends on the person’s capability to function.He defines capability as “the freedom that a person enjoyed in terms of choice to function, given his personal features and his
command for commodities”. To Sen, poverty cannot be measured by income as conventionally understood. The important thing is not what a person has, but who he is, or maybe he did, or can do.

QUESTION TWO
Economic Development involves changes in composition of output, shift in the allocation of productive resources, and elimination or reduction of poverty, inequalities and unemployment. It also includes the good standard of living of the people in the society, the removal of poverty and reduction of unemployment is upturn of economic well-being of the people.

QUESTION THREE
Amartya Sen’s concept of Development As Freedom (1999) is highly acclaimed. He argues that human development is about the expansion of citizens capabilities

For Sen, freedom means increasing citizens access and opportunities to the things they have reason to value. Sen challenges the mainstream concept of measuring development by economic growth (Evans 2002).

Sen does acknowledge that increases in poor people’s incomes do contribute to the expansion of their freedoms. However, he recognises that increase of income alone “has at best uneven and at worst has detrimental impacts on the majority of a country’s population, and radical redistributive measures are necessary for the poor to benefit from growth” (Selwyn 2011:69).
Sen alerts the reader that poverty, unfulfilled elementary needs, the occurrence of famines, the violation of political freedoms and neglect of the agency of women remain today despite ‘unpredented opulence’ (1999). He makes it clear that previous strategies to reduce these catastrophes are erroneous.If pursuing freedom-for-all is about expanding citizens’ capabilities, the focus should not be exclusively on making up for what people lack (Reid-Henry 2012). “Development consists of the removal of various types of unfreedoms that leave people with little choice and little opportunity of exercising their reasoned agency” (Sen 1999:xii). Sen defines the major factors that limit freedom as ‘poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systematic social deprivation, neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or over activity of repressive states

QUESTION FOURTH
Central role of women in national development:.
Women are the fundamental human reservoir of every society as they control most of the non-monetary
economy (subsistence, agriculture, bearing children, domestic labour etc.) and play an important role in the
monetary (training wage labour, employment etc Yawa, (1995).
Women in most societies, whether developed or developing are regarded as currency with which
political and economic alliances are cemented. Thus in social anthropology, the transfer of women between
lineages and clans is regarded as a medium of communication more potent and clearest than language itself
(Coleman, 2007). The woman as a person is an agent of reproduction of life itself. This places her in the position
of the life itself. This places her in the position of the life blood of the entire humanity.
The industrial revolution in England and other parts of the western world in the 18thcentury drastically altered the primary role of women in the society. Women henceforth could be seen playing roles hitherto regarded as the exclusive reserves of men in the economic, political and social lives of the society in the African setting women have played the role of peace maker, the symbol of beauty and major moulder of the character of the children she is the first teacher, the sustained and maintainer of the home. Fasugba (2000) asserted that many women today are engaged in activities and jobs hitherto regarded as the exclusive reserve of men. He further states that since women have become conscious of their right, they have continued to slug itout with men in all areas of human endeavours. By their sheer psychological,
physiological and intellectual make up they do perform more than mere complementary roles in the production
process (Teminiwa, 1995). Globally, women contribute immensely to agricultural development, comprising about 43% of the world’s agricultural labor force. In some countries, the number of women involved in the agricultural labor force increases to over 70%. Available records indicate that in Africa alone, 80% of agricultural production comes from small farmers, most of whom are rural women. It is noteworthy that agriculture is the bedrock of national development as the best approach to food security, poverty reduction, job creation, and economic stability.

At home, women, notably mothers, play the role in decision-making about family meal planning and diet. Women also initiate and preserve the nutritional and healthcare programs of children at home. In addition, women are not only caring for their children at home but are also the primary caretakers of both children and elders in every country of the world. International studies indicate that women lead in finding solutions to the problems occasioned by a change of political and economic organizations in countries, thereby helping the family adjust to new realities and challenges. Indeed, women are the initiators who play important role in facilitating changes in family life.
As educators, the role or contribution of women to society’s transition from pre-literate to the literate period is highly significant. Basic education is key to a nation’s ability to develop and achieve sustainable policies and programs. It is evident that education helps to improve agricultural productivity, enhances the status of girls and women, stabilizes population growth rates, enhances environmental protection and, increases the standard of living.

QUESTION FIFTH
Answer
Functionings and capabilities as doings and beings
At the core of the capability approach is a normative commitment to conceptualize well-being in terms of capabilities and functionings. Functionings are ‘doings and beings’, that is, various states of human beings and activities that a person has achieved, such as being well-nourished, getting married, being educated, and travelling, while capabilities are the real, or substantive, opportunity that they have to achieve these doings and beings. (See section 2.2 for a discussion of real/substantive freedom.) A person’s ‘capability-set’ denotes the set of capabilities that he or she can choose from, while the term ‘basic capabilities’ refers either to “the innate equipment of individuals that is necessary for developing the more advanced capabilities”, such as the capability of speech and language, which is present in a newborn but needs to be fostered (Nussbaum 2000, 84), or to the freedom to do some basic things considered necessary for survival and to avoid or escape poverty or other serious deprivation (Sen 1992, 45, fn. 19). The relevance of basic capabilities is “not so much in ranking living standards, but in deciding on a cut-off point for the purpose of assessing poverty and deprivation”

QUESTION SIXTH
The three core values of development.According to Goulet (1971),
development is about sustained elevation of an entire society and social system towards a better or more human life. Goulet introduced some values which he termed “three core values of development” which are; sustenance, self esteem, and freedom fromservitude. According to Goulet, these three core values represent common goals that every individual and society sought.
The three core values are:
(a) Sustenance According to Goulet
(1971) sustenance is the ability of people to meet the basic needs without which life will be impossible. These needs include food, shelter, health and protection.”Absolute underdevelopment” is when any of these is absent or in critically short supply. Without livelihoods and continuous economic progress, the realization of human potential will be much more difficult.
(b) Self-Esteem This is the second core
value according to Goulet. This value talked about a sense of worth and self respect, a sense of not being used as a tool by others for their own selfish ends. Goulet believed that development is an important way of gaining self-esteem. Self-esteem is nowadays increasingly conferred only on countries and individuals that possess economic wealth, especially in Nigeria. True development should accord self
esteem to her every of her citizen whether they posses economic power or not. According to Human Development Report
(2000), any society that is committed to
improving the lives of its people must also be committed to fulfilling the self-esteem and equal rights for all.

(c).Freedom from servitude (ability to
choose).This is the third core value
propounded by Goulet. To him, “freedomshould be in form ofbeing freeing from alienating material conditions of life and from social servitude to nature, ignorance, misery and dogmatic beliefs, especially that
poverty is predestination”. To be able to
make political and economic choice that
does not infringe on someone’s rights.
Unfortunately, this does not happen in
Nigeria. The citizens don’t have the ability to choose, especially their leaders during election because of lots of anomalies such as rigging of election, accompanied by such election.

QUESTION SEVEN
Well-being rises with income.
I strongly believe in the above assertion because in my finding, I came to understand that as people earn more money, their sense of well-being increases.
there is a statistically significant positive relationship
between income and happiness; Money as a commodity can buy security,
Being secured in your environment can enhance the standard of living of people vis-a-vis happiness.
For instance, when the university of Nigeria Nsukka increased her school fees in the midst of economic downturn, when many people go home with little amount of money as a income. Many are unhappy with the changes.

QUESTION EIGHT
Economic Growth:
Economic Growth is the positive change in the indicators of economy.
Economic Growth refers to the increment in amount of goods and services produced by an economy.
Economic growth means an increase in real national income / national output.
It refers to an increase over time in a country’s real output of goods and services (GNP) or real output per capita income.
Economic growth is single dimensional in nature as it only focuses on income of the people.
Earlier, economic growth was only measured in terms of Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
At present, it is measured in terms of GDP, Gross National Income (GNI) and Per Capita Income.
Economic Growth is the precursor and prerequisite for economic development.
Indicators of economic growth are GDP, GNI and per capita income.
Economic growth relates a gradual increase in one of the components of GDP; consumption, government spending, investment or net exports.
It is also considered as a traditional measure of development which indicates the quantitative rise of economy.
Economic growth only looks at the quantitative aspect. It brings quantitative changes in the economy.
Economic growth is concerned with increase in economy’s output.
It focuses on production of goods and services.
Economic growth is more relevant metric for assessing progress in developed countries.
Economic growth is relatively narrow concept as compared to economic development.
It is for short term/short period.
It is a material/physical concept.
Economic growth is measured in certain time frame/period.
While Economic Development on the other hand :Economic development is the quantitative and qualitative change in an economy.
Economic development refers to the reduction and elimination of poverty, unemployment and inequality with the context of growing economy.
Economic development means an improvement in the quality of life and living standards, e.g. measures of literacy, life-expectancy and health care.
Economic development includes process and policies by which a country improves the social, economic and political well-being of its people.
Economic development is multi-dimensional in nature as it focuses on both income and improvement of living standards of the people.
Economic development is concerned with the happiness of public life.
Economic development comes after economic growth. It is a positive impact of economic growth.
Economic development also refers to:
provision of sufficient and effective physical and social infrastructures
equal access to resources
participation of all in economic activities
equitable distribution of dividends of economy.
Economic development= Economic growth + standard of living
It refers to increase in productivity.
Indicators of economic development are:
Human Development Index (HDI)
Human Poverty Index (HPI)
Gini Coefficient
Gender Development Index (GDI)
Balance of trade
Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI)
Economic development is the ends of development.
Achieving economic development is linked with end of poverty and inequality.
It is more abstract concept.
Economic development focuses on distribution of resources

Nigeria despite witnessing the economic growth over past seven years still lack behind in development owed to inadequate infrastructural facilities and poor Economic regulating policy by the government,It is an understatement to say that Nigeria’s road to progress, whether viewed through economic or socio-political development statistics, has been disappointing. Nigeria’s GDP per capita is barely above its level at emergence from colonialism over fifty years ago, and the poverty rate has actually doubled over the same period, now afflicting seven out of ten Nigerians. .
Nigeria’s economic potential is constrained by many structural issues, including inadequate infrastructure, tariff and non-tariff barriers to trade, obstacles to investment, lack of confidence in currency valuation, and limited foreign exchange capacity.
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