Eco. 361—23-8-2021 (Online Discussion Quiz 3–More Vital Questions to Budding Economists)

Name: Obiesie Mmesoma Rejoice
Reg. No: 2018/245427
Department: Economics/Education
E-mail: obiesiemmesoma@gmail.com
Clearly and convincingly answer the following Questions as the Special Adviser to Mr. President on Development and Employment Generation.
6. Which are the most influential theories of development, and are they compatible? Is underdevelopment an internally (domestically) or externally (internationally) induced phenomenon?
A. Modernization theory : Is used to analyze the processes in which modernization in societies take place. The theory looks at which aspects of countries are beneficial and which constitute obstacles for economic development. The idea is that development assistance targeted at those particular aspects can lead to modernization of ‘traditional’ or ‘backward’ societies. Scientists from various research disciplines have contributed to modernization theory.
B. Structuralism : Is a development theory which focuses on structural aspects which impede the economic growth of developing countries. The unit of analysis is the transformation of a country’s economy from, mainly, a subsistence agriculture to a modern, urbanized manufacturing and service economy. Policy prescriptions resulting from structuralist thinking include major government intervention in the economy to fuel the industrial sector, known as import substitution industrialization (ISI). This structural transformation of the developing country is pursued in order to create an economy which in the end enjoys self-sustaining growth.
C. Dependency theory : It is essentially a follow up to structuralist thinking, and shares many of its core ideas. Whereas structuralists did not consider that development would be possible at all unless a strategy of delinking and rigorous ISI was pursued, dependency thinking could allow development with external links with the developed parts of the globe. However, this kind of development is considered to be “dependent development”, i.e., it does not have an internal domestic dynamic in the developing country and thus remains highly vulnerable to the economic vagaries of the world market.
D. Neoclassical development theory has it origins in its predecessor: Classical economics was developed in the 18th and 19th centuries and dealt with the value of products and on which production factors it depends. Early contributors to this theory are Adam Smith and David Ricardo. Classical economists argued – as do the neoclassical ones – in favor of the free market, and against government intervention in those markets. The ‘invisible hand’ of Adam Smith makes sure that free trade will ultimately benefit all of society.
E. The basic needs model : It was introduced by the International Labour Organization in 1976, mainly in reaction to prevalent modernization- and structuralism-inspired development approaches, which were not achieving satisfactory results in terms of poverty alleviation and combating inequality in developing countries. It tried to define an absolute minimum of resources necessary for long-term physical well-being. The poverty line which follows from this, is the amount of income needed to satisfy those basic needs. The approach has been applied in the sphere of development assistance, to determine what a society needs for subsistence, and for poor population groups to rise above the poverty line.
7. What constraints most hold back accelerated growth, depending on local conditions?
The most hold back include:
Macroeconomic factors that can affect entire economies, including such things as interest rates, inflation rates, and unemployment rates, along with periods of growth and contraction, Inefficiencies within the micro-economy. Imbalances in the structure of the economy. A rapidly growing or declining population. A poor country such as India could not save enough of its annual national income to sustain high rates of investment. The lack of domestic savings was without doubt the most serious constraint to economic growth in the early decades after political independence, the foreign exchange constraint.
A. Interlocking Various Circle.
B. Population Problems.
C. The Difficult of Adapting Western Technology.
D. Lack of Preparation for an Industrial Revolution.
E.The International Context.
8. How can improvements in the role and status of women have an especially beneficial impact on development prospects?
Enhancing women’s participation in development is essential not only for achieving social justice but also for reducing poverty. Worldwide experience shows clearly that supporting a stronger role for women contributes to economic growth, it improves child survival and overall family health, and it reduces fertility, thus helping to slow population growth rates. In short, investing in women is central to sustainable development.
When more women work, economies grow. Women’s economic empowerment boosts productivity, increases economic diversification and income equality in addition to other positive development outcomes. For example, increasing the female employment rates in OECD countries to match that of Sweden, could boost GDP by over USD 6 trillion, recognizing, however, that. growth does not automatically lead to a reduction in gender-based inequality. Conversely, it is estimated that gender gaps cost the economy some 15 percent of GDP.
9. What are the causes of extreme poverty, and what policies have been most effective for improving the lives of the poorest of the poor?
Human Rights define extreme poverty as being characterised by social exclusion and by an accumulation of insecurities in many areas of life: a lack of identity papers, unsafe housing, insufficient food, and a lack of access to health care and to education.
The causes are:
A. Increase rate of rising population
B. Less productivity in agriculture
C. Less utilization of resources
D. A short rate of economic development
E. Increasing price rise
F. Unemployment
G. Shortage of capital and able entrepreneurship
H. Social factors, political regime and dictatorship, western countries and the global order, physical geography diseases.
Key policies include; boosting social policies, promoting coherence between agriculture and social protection; strengthening the capacity of producer organizations and rural institutions; and increasing investment in rural infrastructure, research and services to create new income generating.
Minimum wage laws, social security, negative income taxes, and in-kind benefits.
Direct provision of goods/services – subsidised housing, free education and healthcare.
The most effective policy is free market enterprise protected by strict property laws and a powerful judiciary.
10. Do rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations? Do large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity?
a. Yes
Rapid population growth threaten the economic progress of developing nations when the population growth is tending to overpopulation. However in a situation where the country in question is under developed and its resources under utilized. A rapid population growth would be welcomed and appreciated. Because as the country tends towards optimum population, and reasources properly utilized, the economy of the nation would flourish.
b. I don’t believe that large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity. Now let me explain my reason with an real life example,
If we look into the society of the people living in Northern Nigeria, whom are mostly Hausa and fulani people, who most are Islamic people whose religion permits marriage of a man to more than one woman, leading to raising of large families in the society which has brought about alot of societal problems for them such as high rate of beggars, hawkers, Crime, etc. This is due to the fact that, in a typical large family catering for the needs of every member of the family is difficult, and this is made evem more difficult when the families are in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity.
11. Why is there so much unemployment and underemployment in the developing world, especially in the cities, and why do people continue to migrate to the cities from rural areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job are very slim?
Developing countries all have one major problem in common, “corrupt leaders”. Money that was made in the nation, the leaders take, mismanage and embezzle. And these funds that they embezzle are meant to be put into good use, like improvement of infrastructure and provision of social amenities. Some funds are also intentioned to be used for development of rural areas. Of which doing all these things would lead to creation of employment. When funds that were meant to do this are embezzled. Then there would continually be high rate of unemployment, underemployment and rural to urban migration.
12. Wealthier societies are also healthier ones because they have more resources for improving nutrition and health care. But does better health also help spur successful development?
Acquiring optimum health is paramount to sustain an enjoyable and long-term lifestyle. Wealth is a major supporter for optimum health because it gives you the financial freedom to make healthy choices and avail of any existing health and fitness resources. Unfortunately, in our market place today, the healthier food choices are more expensive than the damaging processed varieties. Fitness, sports and recreational supplies and equipment can also carry hefty prices. As a result, those who experience lack of wealth have limited access to most average and higher level resources that support a healthy lifestyle.
At some point in our lives we will be forced to deal with known or unexpected health issues. In many cases these issues may be extremely costly and not all health insurance coverage includes all expenses. When dealing with any health issues, it’s important that all focus and energy is invested into the recovery process and not consumed by the stress and anxiety of dealing with any financial strain due to the lack of money.
For those who experience wealth, they are not concerned with the expenses of treatments, medications, travel and accommodations if needed or any other required expenses. Unfortunately, for those who experience the lack of money, these expenses become a major distraction and in many cases, it becomes a serious limitation. And yes, health helps to spur success development.
13. What is the impact of poor public health on the prospects for development, and what is needed to address these problems?
Poor public health slows development, reduces labour force, wide spread of infection and diseases, underproduction, increase in mortality rate, poverty, Decrease in human capital development. What is needed to address these problems are
A. Promote Healthy Communities and Healthy Behavior
B. Formulating health improvement policies.
C. Prevent the Spread of Communicable Disease
D. Establishment of more health care centers
E. Assure Health Services
F. Employment or health experts.

Name : NWEKE MELODY CHIOMA

Reg No: 2018/243742

Department: Economics

6. Which are the most influential theories of development, and are they compatible? Is underdevelopment an internally (domestically) or externally (internationally) induced phenomenon?

The most influential theories of development include the following:

Modernization: This theory is used to describe the process of society’s modernization. Modernization is a model for making a gradual shift from a “pre-modern” or “traditional” society to “modern” society. Max Weber (1864–1920), a German sociologist, coined the term “modernization theory.” Modernization theory strives to describe the process of social evolution as well as identify the social variables that contribute to social growth and development. Traditional societies will develop as more modern practices are adopted, according to this theory.

Dependency: This theory was developed in the late 1950s. According to dependency theory, the peripheral position of affected nations in the global economy is the primary source of underdevelopment. On the global market, underdeveloped countries typically offer cheap labor and raw supplies. These resources are sold to developed economies with the infrastructure to turn them into finished goods. Underdeveloped countries end up paying high costs for finished goods, draining capital that could otherwise be used to improve their own productive capacity. As a result, a vicious cycle exists, maintaining the world economy’s division into a rich core and a poor periphery.

World-Systems: The criticisms of Dependency Theory led to the development of World Systems Theory. The theory was developed by Immanuel Wallerstein in 1979. World Systems Theory, like dependence theory, proposes that wealthier countries benefit from and exploit the citizens of other countries. In disparity to dependency theory, this model acknowledges the modest benefits that low-status countries in the global system obtain. According to the world’s economic structure is split into three categories: core countries (e.g., U.S., Japan, Germany), semiperipheral countries (e.g., South Korea, Taiwan, Mexico, Brazil, India, Nigeria, South Africa), and peripheral countries (e.g., most African countries and poor countries in South America and Asia).

Globalization: Globalization is a theory whose goal is to analyze contemporary international events in terms of development, economic conditions, social scenarios, political and cultural influences. Communication and international relationships are at the center of Globalisation Theory, with these ties aimed at cultural and economic factors in communication.

The theories are not compatible based on their background, focus, and direction. While modernization theory views development as a systematic process. Dependency theory is built on the elements of neo-Marxist theory. The world system theory sees capitalism as the dominant system and globalization theory focuses on greater global integration of economic transactions.

According to dependency and theories of dualism, underdevelopment is the result of the historical evolution of a highly unequal global capitalism system of rich-poor relationships. Developed countries are either intentionally or unintentionally exploitative of poor countries. As a result, underdevelopment is a result of external factors.

7. What constraints most hold back accelerated growth, depending on local conditions?

Various factors impacting the economy can slow down, or even reverse, the rate of economic growth, and they include:

Imbalances in the economy’s structure.
A population that is rapidly increasing or decreasing.
Lack of financial resources.
Human capital is in short supply.
Inefficiencies within the micro-economy
Corruption and bad government.
Missing markets
Over-exploitation of environmental capital.
Barriers to trade.

8. How can improvements in the role and status of women have an especially beneficial impact on development prospects?

Several studies have proven that without women’s empowerment and gender equality, sustainable development is unachievable. The fact that women account for more than half of Nigeria’s population makes empowering them to participate actively in all development projects a compelling circumstance.

The highest return on all development initiatives is improving women’s roles and status. For example, increases in the position and status of women in the labour force may result in an increase in total household expenditure, government tax revenues, private enterprises, and personal savings, and therefore the resources available for successful development.

9. What are the causes of extreme poverty, and what policies have been most effective for improving the lives of the poorest of the poor?

The following are some of the reasons for extreme poverty:

Conflict: Poverty can be caused by a conflict in a variety of ways. Large-scale, long-term violence, such as that seen in Syria, can bring society to a standstill, ruin infrastructure, and force people to flee, compelling families to sell or abandon all of their property. In Syria, almost 70% of the population presently lives in poverty.

Inequality: Inequality exists in many forms around the world, ranging from economic to social inequities such as gender, caste systems, and tribal loyalties. However, regardless of the level of inequality, the result is usually the same: unequal or no access to the resources required to keep or elevate a family out of poverty.

The limited capacity of the government: Many people in the United States are aware of the various social welfare programs available to them if they require medical or nutritional assistance. However, not every government can provide this kind of assistance to its residents, and without that safety net, poor families are at risk of falling further into poverty if something goes wrong. Governments that are ineffective also contribute to several of the other reasons for severe poverty described above, as they are unable to provide vital infrastructure or secure the safety and security of their inhabitants in the event of war.

Social injustice: Whether it’s gender discrimination, racism, or other forms of social injustice, poverty follows. People who are victims of social injustice have a difficult time getting a good education, finding suitable employment, and gaining access to resources that can help them escape poverty.

Here are policies the government can take to cut poverty, boost economic security, and improving the lives of the poorest of the poor

Create jobs
Direct provision of goods/services
Raise the minimum wage
Economic Security
Support pay equity
Invest in affordable, high-quality child care and early education
Increasing benefits to the poor

10. Rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations? Do large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity?

Mr. President, I strongly agree that rapid population growth threatens the economic progress of developing nations. Rapid population growth is one of the key contributors to Third World countries’ poverty and underdevelopment.

Rapid population growth has exceeded increases in food production, resulting in the overuse and destruction of arable land. Rapid economic development has been limited by rapid population growth, which has resulted in significant unemployment.

In the long term, population growth, according to Thomas Malthus, will reduce living standards. The theory was straightforward: given a finite amount of land, population increase will eventually restrict the number of resources that each individual can use, leading to disease, starvation, and war. So, for me rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations.

Mr. President, large families do not make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity. In this situation, having huge families can be bad for the economy. For example, an increase in the unemployment rate will result in an increase in the crime rate. The two issues arise as a result of large families living below the poverty line. These function as an additional impediment to economic progress and development.

11. Why is there so much unemployment and underemployment in the developing world, especially in the cities, and why do people continue to migrate to the cities from rural areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job are very slim?

There is so much unemployment and underemployment in the developing world mostly because of government bad policies. For example, in the case of Nigeria, there was a neglect of the role of agriculture in employment generation. The agricultural sector has the capacity of reducing the Nigerian unemployment rate if proper policies are undertaken to promote agriculture in the country.

People continue to migrate to the cities from rural areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job are very slim simply because of their belief that there are a variety of jobs in the city. They believe that cities offer a plethora of job opportunities. However, the number of individuals coming to cities in search of employment outnumbers the number of cities that can absorb this labour, and the number of job opportunities in cities is inadequate. This creates an imbalance, which leads to a variety of socioeconomic problems in cities. As a result, rural areas provide cities with an endless supply of labour. Economically, such labor will be inexpensive, but it will also result in unemployment and underemployment, which are common in most developing-country cities.

12 Wealthier societies are also healthier because they have more resources for improving nutrition and health care. But does better health also help spur successful development?

Research has shown that population health does play a significant role in a community’s economic strength, and that strong community health can help shield a community against economic shocks.

People who are in better health are more productive economically. Because healthier people expect to live longer and are naturally more concerned about their future financial demands, better health leads to higher savings rates which constitute the funds needed for investment. So, better health help promotes successful development.

13. What is the impact of poor public health on the prospects for development, and what is needed to address these problems?

It’s important to note that the residents in many of the world’s poorest countries have the worst health. When a bigger proportion of the population becomes ill as a result of inadequate public health services, the country’s economic prosperity is compromised.

People who have poor public health are less productive economically. However, countries with good public health are more productive economically Because healthier people expect to live longer and are naturally more concerned about their future financial demands, better health leads to higher savings rates which constitute the funds needed for investment.

One important solution to this problem is for government to provide adequate public health care and this can be done by:

Ensuring that public healthcare facilities are adequately funded.
Ensuring the employment of well trained personnel.
Putting in place an efficient training program for public health workers.

Name : IZUEKE CHIDERA MAXIMILIAN
REG NO: 2018/246268
DEPARTMENT : Combined social sciences
(Economics/political science)

1a) Which are the most influential theories of development, and are they compatible?
*Answer * Development Theory is a collection of theories about how desirable change in society can best be achieved. Such theories draw on a variety of social science disciplines and approaches.
The four major theories of development are : modernization, dependency, worldsystem and globalization.
According to the modernization theory, modern societies are more productive, children are better educated, and the needy receive more welfare. Modernization is a progressive process which in the long run is not only inevitable but desirable.
Dependency is a double-edge sword that can either promote or demote the status of the dependent. The case of the dependency relationship between less advanced countries (LACs) and most industrialized countries (MICs) is a pertinent example that explains the attitude developed by each party to situate and maintain itself in its current status to be classified as underdeveloped, developing or develop. Dependency involves some sort of reliance of an economic agent on another through which the power of the dependent party is reinforced or weakened owing to its ability or inability to take advantage of the dependence relationship.
The world-systems theory considers trade mechanisms, it distinguishes between the direct transactions, which are those who have a greater, more significant and immediate effect on a country; and those operations which are indirect trade transactions, such as future trade stipulations, and the speculations on transportation costs, combustibles prices, and forecasts on agricultural crops, when they depend on weather conditions to obtain their productivity and yield.
The theory of globalization coincides with several elements from the theory of modernization. One aspect is that both theories consider that the main direction of development should be that which was undertaken by the United States and Europe. These schools sustain that the main patterns of communication and the tools to achieve better standards of living originated in those more developed areas. On this point it is important to underline the difference between the modernization perspective and the globalization approach. The former follows a more normative position -stating how the development issue should be solved-, the latter reinforces its character as a “positive” perspective, rather than a normative claim

1b) Is underdevelopment an internally (domestically) or externally (internationally) induced phenomenon?
Underdevelopment is viewed as an externally-induced process which is perpetuated by a small but powerful domestic elite who form an alliance with the international capitalist system. The “development of underdevelopment” is therefore systemic and path-dependent.
2) What constraints most hold back accelerated growth, depending on local conditions?
Peoples’ belief or tradition: most people might not want development because they are afraid that their culture or tradition will be destroyed.
Literacy: The literacy rate is very low in the under developed countries. It reduces the rate of economic growth.
3) How can improvements in the role and status of women have an especially beneficial impact on development prospects?
w. Women’s economic empowerment boosts productivity, increases economic diversification and income equality in addition to other positive development outcomes. For example, increasing the female employment rates in OECD countries to match that of Sweden, could boost GDP by over US$6 trillion, recognizing, however, that. growth does not automatically lead to a reduction in gender-based inequality. Conversely, it is estimated that gender gaps cost the economy some 15% of GDP.
4) What are the causes of extreme poverty, and what policies have been most effective for improving the lives of the poorest of the poor?
-Poverty can be caused by so many things:
Gender inequality, conflict, hunger, malnutrition, poor healthcare systems, little or no access to clean water, sanitation and hygiene, climate, lack of education, poor public works and infrastructure etc.
4b) To reduce poverty, government policies could include:
1. Means-tested welfare benefits to the poorest in society; for example, unemployment benefit, food stamps, income support and housing benefit.
2. Minimum wages. Regulation of labor markets, for example, statutory minimum wages
3. Free market policies to promote economic growth – hoping that rising living standards will filter down to the poorest in society.
4. Direct provision of goods/services – subsidized housing, free education and healthcare.

5) Rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations? Do large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity?

The effect of population growth can be positive or negative depending on the circumstances. A large population has the potential to be great for economic development: after all, the more people you have, the more work is done, and the more work is done, the more value (or, in other words, money) is created.
Large families don’t make sense in an environment with widespread poverty and financial insecurity because such families will be malnourished, uneducated and will sometimes have low self-esteem.

6) Why is there so much unemployment and underemployment in the developing world, especially in the cities, and why do people continue to migrate to the cities from rural areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job are very slim?

Unemployment and underemployment in less developing countries like Nigeria is that as compared with the magnitude of population and labor force there is limited availability of capital or complementary resources which include land, factories, machines, tools and implements-the means with which labor produces.
Now, if the population grows faster than the stock of capital of a country, the entire addition to the labor force cannot be absorbed in productive employment because not enough instruments of production would be there to employ them. Since in less developed countries, the stock of capital has not been growing at a rate fast enough to keep pace with the growth of population, the ability to offer productive employment is very limited. This has resulted in surplus labor which is manifested in the existence of huge magnitude of under-employment or disguised unemployment and open unemployment in both the rural and urban areas.
People travel to the city even when they know that their chances of getting jobs are slim is because even if they don’t get jobs, they can at least enjoy some benefits that is in the cities like good road, good healthcare, clean water and they are hopeful of getting jobs someday.
7) Wealthier societies are also healthier ones because they have more resources for improving nutrition and health care. But does better health also help spur successful development?
Illness typically leads to increased household
expenditures on health services and goods, and may also reduce time spent producing income that
allows them to consume market goods. In response to this change in income and/or expenditure,
households may reduce their consumption of non-health goods and/or liquidate household
savings or assets (and by so doing diminish their opportunities to generate the stock of financial
and physical capital that will enable it to maintain or increase its consumption possibilities in the
future). Furthermore, ill-health can interfere with the consumption of non-market activities (e.g.
WHO guide to identifying the economic consequences of disease and injury

giving up unpaid housework or leisure time to look after a sick household member) and of course
reduces the stock of health itself.

8) What is the impact of poor public health on the prospects for development, and what is needed to address these problems?

Just like the saying; health is wealth. Poor public health will surely be a setback on development, it takes a healthy and mentally sound worker to be efficient in his work and when half of the public health is poor it will surly affect the rate of development in the economy
This problem can be solved by providing good health care and a conducive living environment.

NAME:OKOYE FAVOUR
REG NO:2018/249186
IFYFAVOUROKOYE@GMAIL.COM

6.Modernisation theory is one of the most influential theories of development.Modernization theory is used to explain the process of modernization within societies. Modernization theory originated from the ideas of German sociologist Max Weber (1864–1920), which provided the basis for the modernization paradigm developed by Harvard sociologist Talcott Parsons (1902–1979). The theory looks at the internal factors of a country while assuming that with assistance, “traditional” countries can be brought to development in the same manner more developed countries have been. Modernization theory was a dominant paradigm in the social sciences in the 1950s and 1960s, then went into a deep eclipse. It made a comeback after 1991 but remains a controversial model.

Modernization theory both attempts to identify the social variables that contribute to social progress and development of societies and seeks to explain the process of social evolution. Modernization theory is subject to criticism originating among socialist and free-market ideologies, world-systems theorists, globalization theorists and dependency theorists among others. Modernization theory stresses not only the process of change but also the responses to that change. It also looks at internal dynamics while referring to social and cultural structures and the adaptation of new technologies.

Modernization refers to a model of a progressive transition from a ‘pre-modern’ or ‘traditional’ to a ‘modern’ society. Modernization theory suggests that traditional societies will develop as they adopt more modern practices.
They are compatible because they are both concerned with restructuring the economy in such a way that lead to industrialization and economic development.
Underdevelopment is viewed as an externally-induced process which is perpetuated by a small but powerful domestic elite who form an alliance with the international capitalist system.

7.The pace of development can be slowed down, or even reversed, by various factors affecting the economy. Some of these constraints can be dealt with through economic and social policy, while others may be difficult to resolve.
The constraints on development include
• Inefficiencies within the micro-economy.

• Imbalances in the structure of the economy.

• A rapidly growing or declining population.

• Lack of financial capital.

• Lack of human capital.

• Poor governance and corruption.

• Missing markets.

• Over-exploitation of environmental capital.

• Barriers to trade.

8.Throughout history, the central role of women in society has ensured the stability, progress and long-term development of nations.
The Role of Women as Caretakers

Women are the primary caretakers of children and elders in every country of the world. International studies demonstrate that when the economy and political organization of a society change, women take the lead in helping the family adjust to new realities and challenges. They are likely to be the prime initiator of outside assistance, and play an important role in facilitating (or hindering) changes in family life.

The Role of Women as Educators

The contribution of women to a society’s transition from pre-literate to literate likewise is undeniable. Basic education is key to a nation’s ability to develop and achieve sustainability targets. Research has shown that education can improve agricultural productivity, enhance the status of girls and women, reduce population growth rates, enhance environmental protection, and widely raise the standard of living.

It is the mother in the family who most often urges children of both genders to attend – and stay – in school.  The role of women is at the front end of the chain of improvements leading to the family’s, the community’s long-term capacity.
The Role of Women in the Workforce

Today, the median female share of the global workforce is 45.4 percent. Women’s formal and informal labor can transform a community from a relatively autonomous society to a participant in the national economy. Despite significant obstacles, women’s small businesses in rural developing communities not only can be an extended family’s lifeline, but can form a networked economic foundation for future generations. The role of women in the urban and rural workforce has expanded exponentially in recent decades.

The Role of Women as Global Volunteers

Global Volunteers’ community development work in host countries worldwide strengthens women’s and children’s capacity and supports their sustained health and development. Under the direction of local leaders, our volunteers help ensure academic accessibility, foster parental involvement, offer psycho-social support, provide nutrition and health education, fund girls’ scholarships, construct schools with girls’ bathrooms, tutor literacy, and numeracy, and so much more. Contact us using the form below to learn how you can contribute to this critical agenda.

9.a.LACK OF RESERVE.
B.LIMITED CAPACITY OF THE GOVERNMENT
C.LACK OF INFRASTRUCTURE
D.CLIMATE CHANGE
E.POOR EDUCATION
F.INEQUALITY
G.CONFLICT
H.LITTLE OR NO ACCESS TO LIVELIHOODS OR JOBS.
Policies for improving the life of the poorest of the poor include
1.create jobs
2.Raise the minimum wage.
3.Increase the Earned Income Tax Credit for childless workers
4.support pay equity

10.Rapid population growth is one of the major contributing factors to the poverty and under-development of Third World countries–especially African countries, which boast the highest population growth rates in the world. Several factors are responsible for the rapid growth: a drop in mortality rates, a young population, improved standards of living, and attitudes and practices which favor high fertility.
No, it does not make sense to have large families in face of widespread poverty and financial insecurity. Because having large families in this situation can be detrimental to the economy. For instance, there will be an increase in unemployment rate leading to an increase in crime rate. The two factors come about as a result of having large families in poverty stricken economies. These further acts as a drag on any economic progress and development.

11.Lack of Physical Capital Relative to Labour Force.
B.Lack of Wage Goods and Unemployment in Developing Countries.
C.poor quality of education
D.lack of skills
E.Negligence of agriculture and other natural resources.
Employment opportunities are the most common reason due to which people migrate. Some of these people move simply to seek new opportunities and improve their lives. Others are forced to flee due to conflict or sudden or slow onset disasters, such as drought, flooding or rising sea levels, which are often exacerbated by climate change and environmental stress.

12.Ensuring the health and well-being of all is essential to poverty eradication efforts and achieving sustainable development, contributing to economic growth and prosperous communities. Health is also an inalienable human right according to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, as good health allows people to reach their full potential, children to be better able to learn, workers to be more productive and parents to care for their children better.

It is also a key indicator of a country’s progress: a nation with a healthy population is more likely to experience sustained growth. Good health is also essential for the stability of entire regions, as pandemics, which transcend borders, can have severe social and economic impacts on families and communities, and can put increased pressure on health systems.

13.Individuals suffering from illness may be weak, unable to work or study and generally unable to provide for children and other dependants. At a more aggregated level, however, it seems likely that a high disease burden may have an adverse impact on a country’s productivity, growth and, ultimately, economic development.At a societal level, poor population health is associated with lower savings rates, lower rates of return on capital, and lower levels of domestic and foreign investment; all of these factors can and do contribute to reductions in economic growth.
Things needed to address this issues includes;
– Formulating health improvement policies.
– establishment of more health care centers
– and employment or health expert

Name: Iko Grace Onu
Reg. No. 2011/179787
Assignment on Eco 361
Questions: As the special adviser to Mr. President on development and employment generation;
• which are the most influecial theories of development; and are they compatible? Is underdelopment an internally (domestic) or externally(internationally) induced phenomenon?
• ANSWERS
6a.The meaning of development has been a burden on ancient political scholars. It has acquired diverse meanings and interpretations from different scholars such as Amartya Sen, Todaro, Coralie Bryant, etc. Development is defined by Todaro and Smith as a multi-dimensional process that involves major changes in social structures, popular attitudes, and national institutions, as well as economic growth, reduction of inequality, and eradication of absolute poverty. Most scholars propounded theories concerning development, how it is achieved and how it is impeded. These theories are the Modernization theory, the Dependency theory and the Feminist theory.
The modernization theory elaborates on two main categories of societies in world, namely the traditional and modern societies. Theorists argue that the traditional societies are entangled by norms, beliefs and values which are hindering their development process. Therefore they must adapt the modern style of living, thus concentrate on accumulation of capital and industrialization.
In essence, this theory seeks to improve the standard of living of inferior societies, that is, improves the economic growth of supposed traditional societies to acquire basic and secondary necessities of life, by introducing modern technology and economic strategy to the third world. Modernization theorist, Rostow, also proposed swift machineries of transition for traditional societies to develop; these are preparation to take-off, take-off, drive to maturity and the period of mass consumption. These transitional path processes put traditional societies on the development path. Again, the theory succeeds in the idea that the norms, values and beliefs of a society can affect the social change of that society.
Despite the advantages attributed to the theory, it has weaknesses which must be addressed. Firstly, the theory seeks to entail only the economic and concrete industrial growth of the third world countries. The theory lacks Amartya’s view of development, which states that “development can be seen as the process of expanding the freedoms that people enjoy” (Sen,1999). To Sen, development entails freedom, liberty, and self esteem of humanity which are neglected by the theory.
Secondly, the modernization theory posited that the third world countries must admit the development processes of the modern countries. It fails to recognize the fact that one system cannot be adopted by all countries due to the diverse historical and cultural background of the countries.Lastly, Wallerstien pointed out that the theory creates dependency and exploitation of the third world countries. The theory neglects the social and cultural structure of the third world countries and imposes on the poor, ethnocentric processes to develop.
The dependency theory on the other hand opposes the modernization theory. Its main argument is that, the persistent increment in industrialization in the developed countries rather equally subject poor countries to underdevelopment as a result of the economic surplus of the poor countries being exploited by developed countries.It was a great analysis done by Frank A. Gunder by being able to debunk the weak, non historical and ethnocentric issues propounded by the modernization theory (Webster 1984).
Also, Gunder succeeded in pointing out the economic inequalities among the developed and the developing countries, as well as the rampant internal inequalities in the various periphery countries and the exploitation of economic surplus developing countries during colonialism. Again, the theory posits an essence emphasis on the fact that development is not mainly based on the cultural values but rather, the economic and social structures and procedures.
Dependency theory incurs some weaknesses. Frank failed to exhibit the specific and key dependency of the less developed countries on the metropolis, he merely stated that poor countries depend on rich countries with no specific clarification. The theory downplays internal development. It promotes the idea that indigenous industries cannot develop by it productivity which is not true. Moreover, the theory refuses to point out how the developed countries get access to the economic surplus of the third world countries.
The feminist theory of development has its main argument being that, women have a great influence in development therefore must be empowered to partake in decision making and its implementation. This theory plays much role in the building of women capacity and capabilities as development is concerned. Also feminists were able to bring awareness of gender inequalities among societies and engaged in massive activities to emancipate women. Feminists succeeded in propounding theories namely, Women in Development (WID) and Woman and development (WAD) to promote equity.Despite feminists’ achievement on the theory, they seemed to address the interest of females instead of addressing issues concerned with gender as a whole. This was criticized by the Gender and development theory. Also, upon all the activities and struggle to attain a high standard of living for women, there are still high inequalities among our social world unaddressed. The feminist theory failed to point out the actual actions and procedures which must be taken by the society and men to empower women in development process but just emphasized on why women must be part and neglected the “how”.
6b. Underdevelopment is viewed as an externally-induced process which is perpetuated by a small but powerful domestic elite who form an alliance with the international capitalist system. The “development of underdevelopment” is therefore systemic and path-dependent.
Underdevelopment is thus externally induced. Developing countries are destined to be the sweatshops of the rich nations (through their multinationals for example) and depend on developed nations for manufacturing goods that are high-value-added. Many developing countries were forced to become exporters of primary commodities by their colonial masters. Many of these countries still depend on primary commodities after independence. However, with average prices of primary commodities falling substantially (by half in many cases) since 1950s, dependence on primary commodities export is impoverishing to these countries. The economies of Zambia and Nigeria had been negatively affected by falling prices for their commodities exports. However, countries like Thailand and Malaysia who used to depend heavily on tin, rubber and palm oil are able to diversified into manufacturing exports. These countries went on to develop strong manufacturing sector.
7. The pace of development can be slowed down, or even reversed, by various factors affecting the economy. Some of these constraints can be dealt with through economic and social policy, while others may be difficult to resolve.
The constraints on development include:
1. Inefficiencies within the micro-economy.
2. Imbalances in the structure of the economy.
3. A rapidly growing or declining population.
4. Lack of financial capital.
5. Lack of human capital.
6. Poor governance and corruption.
7. Missing markets.
8. Over-exploitation of environmental capital.
9. Barriers to trade.
8. Improvements in women’s employment in the private sector could be achieved by remedying the shortfall between the skills taught at school and those required in the labour market, guaranteeing equal access to quality learning, fostering women’s education and training in science and technology universities and similar centres, introducing on-going learning programmes for women and encouraging private enterprises to launch training programmes for women graduates, encouraging the private sector and foundations to invest in programmes and the improvement of skills to favour women’s enterprises and career opportunities for women and girls, and supporting recruitment, retention and progress of women and girls in the fields of science, technology and innovation by means of transparent criteria.
In other words, mirror representation says that the proportion of women in leadership should match the proportion of women in the population that they govern. Mirror representation is premised on the assumption that elected officials of a gender would likely support policies that seek to benefit constituents of the same gender.
Several efforts have been made to address the low representation of women in Nigeria in elective and appointive positions in Nigeria; among such efforts are the establishment of Women Political empowerment office and Nigeria Women Trust Funds, Women Lobby Group. Other efforts include the institution of an INEC gender policy, the national multi-stakeholder dialogue; the initiation of several interventions to actualize affirmative action and the convening of the Nigeria Women Strategy Conference. The National Center for Women Development in collaboration with the National Bureau of Statistics are making efforts to have evidence-based data about this issue. Presently the available data are not harmonized.
Hopes are high that the result will show the progress steadily made to achieving the affirmative declaration and determine how the gap that erstwhile existed has been closed as well as to measure the variation between where we are and the affirmative action of 35 percent. Also, it will improve evidence-based planning and programming involving women in decision making; increase the support of key stakeholders on measures to increase the representation of women in decision-making and further improved awareness of new advocacy tools among stakeholders to support the campaign for increased representation of women in decision making in Nigeria.
Other amiable factors which of course could increase women’s intentions to politics and the world of economics include; the identification of aspirants and pairing them with established women politicians, playing mentoring a role and providing capacity building training to young or aspiring female politicians, Building a Coalition of NGOs and Grassroots women associations that coordinates the support and advocacy for women aspirants. Also, creating an enabling environment that allows for women to engage in the decision-making process in a sustainable and effective way free from political harassment and violence, establish legal funds to assist women politicians to challenge electoral malpractices of any form at all levels of political processes.
In addition, a quota system at all levels of government is introduced and will engage relevant stakeholders such as the Independent National Electoral Commission and political parties. Authorities should act in accordance with the target of ensuring gender equality in maintaining both financial and monetary policies; and medium-term programmes, medium-term financial plans and annual plans should be redesigned to this effect. Implementation results should be evaluated and audited continuously by the independent monitoring mechanisms. Lastly, Special budget items should be included in the budget for active measures to transform sexist structures while pre-school education is strengthened and increase enrolment rates to help promote women’s participation in the workforce through improved childcare services.
Except there is strict adherence to the following recommendations, women participation might remain unchanged. However, platforms involving women movement as a veritable platform to seize political power and consolidate the power on this same platform. Be that as it may, there is an increase in women participation on these bases and women movements are promising in achieving gender equality and equity.
9a. CAUSES OF POVERTY
1. Inequality and marginalization
2. Conflict
3. Hunger, malnutrition, and stunting
4. Poor healthcare systems — especially for mothers and children
5. Little or no access to clean water, sanitation, and hygiene
6. Climate change
7. Lack of education
8. Poor public works and infrastructure
9. Lack of government support
10. Lack of jobs or livelihoods
11. Lack of reserves

9b. ATTEMPTS TO ERADICATE POVERTY
1. Create jobs
2. Raise the minimum wage
3. Increase the Earned Income Tax Credit for childless workers
4. Support pay equity
5. Provide paid leave and paid sick days
6. Establish work schedules that work
7. Invest in affordable, high-quality child care and early education
8. Expand Medicaid
9. Reform the criminal justice system and enact policies that support successful re-entry
10. Do no harm
10a. The main common characteristics of developing countries and determinants of economic growth have remained under-developed or in other words, what have been the obstacles to their development and constraints on their economic growth.
There are not one but several explanations, both economic and non-economic, for their underdevelopment. In the present chapter we are concerned with the study of some explanations of underdevelopment. A suitable strategy of development to accelerate the rate of economic growth can be framed if the correct explanation of their underdevelopment can be known.
10. As population increases, per capita available income declines. People are re- quired to feed more children with the same income. It means more expenditure on consumption and a further fall in already low savings and consequently in the level of investment.
11a.Inadequate education and lack of productivity is costing jobs. Unemployment increases progressively with decreased educational levels; and the education system is not producing the skills for the labour market. Labour supply is affected by the increase in the number of job seekers over the years.
11b. The poor economic conditions and lack of employment opportunities in villages are the main push factors that drift the rural population to the urban areas. The rural areas, which are less developed, have poor agricultural conditions and greater population pressure on land, push the surplus population to urban centres.
12.In instrumental terms, health impacts economic growth in a number of ways. For example, it reduces production losses due to worker illness, it increases the productivity of adult as a result of better nutrition, and it lowers absenteeism rates and improves learning among school children.
13a. Individuals suffering from illness may be weak, unable to work or study and generally unable to provide for children and other dependants. At a more aggregated level, however, it seems likely that a high disease burden may have an adverse impact on a country’s productivity, growth and, ultimately, economic development.
13b. The solutions to these problems must thus come from both inside developing countries and the international community. The population of developing countries must be encouraged to hold their governments accountable to promises made to work towards the achievement of the Millennium Goals. Industrialised countries must heed the sharp warning implicit in the breakdown of the WTO Doha Development Round Ministerial Meeting in Cancun in 2003, where the message by developing countries to the world’s richest nations was that the latter must adapt to a new “progressive globalisation” agenda in order to ensure the future smooth functioning of the world economy.
14. Education in every sense is one of the fundamental factors of development. No country can achieve sustainable economic development without substantial investment in human capital. Education enriches people’s understanding of themselves and world. It improves the quality of their lives and leads to broad social benefits to individuals and society. Education raises people’s productivity and creativity and promotes entrepreneurship and technological advances. In addition it plays a very crucial role in securing economic and social progress and improving income distribution.
15. Improvement of water harvesting, cultivating drought-resistant crops, ecological restoration, combined with better local governance, financial instruments, integrated resource management, sound public services, and better urban-rural linkages could help rural communities around the world to become more sustainable.
16. environmental Sustainable development could be defined as a condition of balance, resilience, and interconnectedness that allows human society to satisfy its needs while neither exceeding the capacity of its supporting ecosystems to continue to regenerate the services necessary to meet those needs nor by our actions diminishing biological diversity.
16b. The main challenges to sustainable development which are global in character include poverty and exclusion, unemployment, climate change, conflict and humanitarian aid, building peaceful and inclusive societies, building strong institutions of governance, and supporting the rule of law.
17. Privatisation is widely promoted as a means of improving economic performance in developing countries. However, the policy remains controversial and the relative roles of ownership and other structural changes, such as competition and regulation, in promoting economic performance remain uncertain.
18. Invest in technology, human capital, and physical capital. Provide incentives of a market-oriented economic context.Work to reduce government economic controls on market activities.Deregulate the banking and financial sector.Reduce protectionist policies.
19. International trade allows countries to expand their markets and access goods and services that otherwise may not have been available domestically. As a result of international trade, the market is more competitive. This ultimately results in more competitive pricing and brings a cheaper product home to the consumer.
When a country enters into trade with another country, it gains from trade. The gain from trade leads to income distribution in the country. ADVERTISEMENTS: … The government redistributes income between them in accordance with a defined welfare function.
20.
21. Globalization is a process of global economic, political and cultural integration. It has made the world become a small village; the borders have been broken down between countries. ”The history of globalization goes back to the second half of the twentieth century, the development of transport and communication technology led to situation where national borders appeared to be too limiting for economic activity” (Economic Globalization in Developing Countries, 2002). Globalization is playing an increasingly important role in the developing countries. It can be seen that, globalization has certain advantages such as economic processes, technological developments, political influences, health systems, social and natural environment factors. It has a lot of benefit on our daily life. Globalization has created a new opportunities for developing countries. Such as, technology transfer hold out promise, greater opportunities to access developed countries markets, growth and improved productivity and living standards. However, it is not true that all effects of this phenomenon are positive. Because, globalization has also brought up new challenges such as, environmental deteriorations, instability in commercial and financial markets, increase inequity across and within nations. This paper evaluates the positive and negative impact of globalization on developing nations in the following proportions;
1- Economic and Trade Processes Field
Globalization helps developing countries to deal with rest of the world increase their economic growth, solving the poverty problems in their country. In the past, developing countries were not able to tap on the world economy due to trade barriers. They cannot share the same economic growth that developed countries had. However, with globalization the World Bank and International Management encourage developing countries to go through market reforms and radical changes through large loans. Many developing nations began to take steps to open their markets by removing tariffs and free up their economies. The developed countries were able to invest in the developing nations, creating job opportunities for the poor people.
2- Education and Health Systems
Globalization contributed to develop the health and education systems in the developing countries. We can clearly see that education has increased in recent years, because globalization has a catalyst to the jobs that require higher skills set. This demand allowed people to gain higher education. Health and education are basic objectives to improve any nations, and there are strong relationships between economic growth and health and education systems. Through growth in economic, living standards and life expectancy for the developing nations certainly get better. With more fortunes poor nations are able to supply good health care services and sanitation to their people. In addition, the government of developing countries can provide more money for health and education to the poor, which led to decrease the rates of illiteracy. This is seen in many developing countries whose illiteracy rate fell down recently. It is truth that, living standards and life expectancy of developing countries increase through economic gains from globalization. According to the World Bank (2004) ” With globalization, more than 85 percent of the world’s population can expect to live for at least sixty years and this is actually twice as long as the average life expectancy 100 years ago”. In addition, globalization helped doctors and scientists to contribute to discover many diseases, which spread by human, animals and birds, and it helped them to created appropriate medicines to fight these deadly diseases
3- Culture Effects
Globalization has many benefits and detriment to the culture in the developing countries. Many developing countries cultures has been changed through globalization, and became imitate others cultures such as, America and European countries. Before globalization it would not have been possible to know about other countries and their cultures. Due to important tools of globalization like television, radio, satellite and internet, it is possible today to know what is happening in any countries such as, America, Japan and Australia.
22. Industrialization is often essential for economic growth, and for long-run poverty reduction. The pattern of industrialization, however, impacts remarkably on how the poor benefit from growth. Pro-poor economic and industrial policies focus on increasing the economic returns to the productive factors that the poor possess, e.g. raising returns to unskilled labour, whereas policies promoting higher returns to capital and land tend to increase inequality, unless they also include changes in existing patterns of concentration of physical and human capital and of land ownership. Use of capital-intensive methods instead of labour-intensive ones tends to increase income disparities, as does the employment of skill-biased technologies, especially where the level of education is low and human capital concentrated. Also, the location of industrial facilities has an impact on overall poverty reduction and inequality. Due to this change, domestic inequality in those countries is expected to decline because of the increased demand for labour, whereas inequality would increase in countries with an abundant endowment of capital. Liberalization of foreign direct investment can also decrease inequality in capital-importing countries, but that depends in part on the degree of skill-bias of technologies employed by foreign invested firms. In several countries, trade and investment liberalization has, indeed, decreased absolute poverty and sometimes also inequality. Bourguignon and Morrison (1990), for example, analyze the determinants of inequality in 35 developing countries and conclude that the phased removal of trade protection in manufacturing reduces the income of the richest 20 per cent of the population and increases the income of the poorest 60 per cent. Dollar and Kraay (2004), who examined impacts of increased trade on growth and inequality, found changes in growth rates to be highly correlated with changes in trade volumes. No systematic relationship between changes in trade volumes and changes in household income inequality was found, and they conclude that on average greater globalization is a force for poverty reduction.
23. How did so many developing nations get into such serious foreign-debt problems, and what are the implications of debt problems for economic development? How do financial crises affect development?
Bonn, 11 February 2019. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (WB) have again branded almost half of low-income countries as heavily indebted – despite the extensive debt relief received by most low-income countries between 2000 and 2012 under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative and the Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative (MDRI). High foreign debt hampers the development of these countries because the money has to be used for interest and principal payments and is not, therefore, available for key investments, such as infrastructure or social spending. Long-standing internal and external problems are again among the key causes of debt in low-income countries. However, the current situation differs significantly from previous debt crises. In particular, the creditors involved have mainly granted non-concessional loans and not concessional loans.
Poor debt management and low government revenues due to inefficient tax policies and weaknesses in the rule of law are among the internal causes. Furthermore, the loans are often used for the consumption of goods, rather than for productive investments. In addition, there are external shocks, such as falling commodity prices since 2011 or natural disasters like floods or storms. Structural problems, such as a poorly diversified economic and export structure, result in their economies being highly vulnerable to price and demand fluctuations on the world market.
What is new about the current debt situation is that the creditors – and therefore the debt structure – have changed significantly. Developing countries have significantly increased their borrowing at market conditions, especially from new lenders such as China and India, and from private creditors. According to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), public debt at market conditions as a share of total debt doubled between 2007 and 2016 in low-income countries, rising to 46 percent. Compared to the concessional loans from traditional bilateral (notably lenders in the OECD Development Assistance Committee) and multilateral creditors such as the IMF and WB, these loans have higher interest and shorter maturities. This further jeopardises the debt sustainability of developing countries.
Compared to those countries that are not members of the Paris Club, public debt as a share of GDP in low-income countries doubled between 2007 and 2016. One of these lenders stands out in particular: China. In contrast, loans from members of the Paris Club have declined considerably.
In developing countries, the amount of public debt owed to private creditors as a share of total debt rose from around 40 percent in 2000 to 60 percent in 2016, according to UNCTAD. Moreover, not only has foreign debt increased, but domestic debt has also risen sharply in developing countries.
In order to prevent a renewed debt crisis in developing countries, it is of primary importance to establish good debt management practices. The capacity for public debt management needs to be improved and an appropriate debt structure established which takes into account loan maturities and the ratios of domestic and foreign currency. Good debt management also provides greater transparency and more complete data on the debt situation in developing countries. The good debt management measures implemented to date by lenders, such as the Debt Management Facility of the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund and UNCTAD’s Debt Management and Financial Analysis System Programme, must be further expanded and improved. Another important element is establishing a set of uniform principles for responsible lending and borrowing. There have been various proposals so far from the United Nations, the G20, the OECD and the Institute of International Finance (a global association of private financial institutions). In the event of a debt crisis, it will be difficult to coordinate with such a heterogeneous group of creditors. As a result, the use of collective clauses in bond contracts should be extended now to simplify any future restructuring of government bonds.
Given the expected rise in global interest rates and the shorter maturities of non-concessionary loans, there will continue to be considerable risks for the debt sustainability of developing countries in the future. It is high time that action is taken and agreements at international level reached in order to stop another debt crisis occurring.
24. Most of the recent research concludes that aid supports growth, as shown in the excellent summary by Ardnt, Jones, and Tarp. They find that the research shows that a “sustained inflow of foreign aid equivalent to 10 percent of GDP is roughly expected to raise growth rates per capita by one percentage point on average.” For developing countries with per capita growth rates of 3-4 percent per year, an extra percentage point of growth is an important addition. Other reviews of the recent literature have reached similar conclusions. Even The Economist magazine, long skeptical of aid, changed its tune a couple of years ago, concluding that most evidence shows that aid boosts growth.A final argument is political—that aid keeps bad governments in power. But again, recent research suggests the opposite: since the end of the Cold War, aid has helped support democratic transitions both by reinforcing broad development progress and by supporting civil society organizations, stronger judicial systems, and multiparty elections. Aid programs (alongside diplomacy and other tools of international engagement) are not the driving force behind development, but they can help support development progress along the way.
25. The process of globalization is thus not only reorganizing power at world level but also at national and subnational levels (Peck and Durnin, 1999). As domestic firms move part of their production to other countries, technology, knowledge and capital become more important than landthe traditional source of State powerand this redefines the function of the State (Rosecrance, 1996; Sideri, 1997). The loss of sovereignty to supra-national regional institutions is more acceptable than to international institutions that are more remote. The European Union is an example of such regional integration and governance (Bressand, 1990). Social programmes within the European Union are enforcing major re-distributions of revenue between individual countriesaprocess currently being challenged. The nationState as the possessor of the sense of identity is being replaced by sub-nations and internal regions as government is devolved. 5 A recent study by Subramanian and Lawrence (1999) finds that national locations remained distinctive. Policy barriers at the borders, differences in local cultures in their widest sense and nature and geography contribute to distinctiveness. This, together with the ability of incumbents to ensure outsiders are disadvantaged (Buckley et al., 2001) and the first entrant benefits of local firms, reinforce the differentiation of national economies. International competition remains imperfect and international price differences persist because arbitrage is costly. Domestic market conditions largely determine prices and wages. MNE affiliates remain firmly embedded in their local economy, and such local firms identify closely with national governments. Subramanian and Lawrence (1999) conclude that national borders still matter, as they continue to engender and coincide with important discontinuities stemming from government policies, geography and societal differences. The authors stress information discontinuities, which coincide with national boundaries and so create search and deliberation problems for trading and manufacturing firms. These issues also account for the alleged ‘home bias’ of MNEs. FDI is the key tool by which MNEs bridge cross-border discontinuities. The two contrasting paradigms of a world made up of self-contained national economies and a ‘borderless world’ is incomplete and captures only part of a complex and subtle story. Lenway and Murtha (1994) examine the role of the State as a strategist along four dimensions: authority versus markets; communitarianism versus individualism; political versus economic objectives; and equity versus efficiency. They state that international business scholarship “places a benchmark value on efficient international markets and tends to regard states as causes of deviation from this ideal” (p. 530). Globalization and corporate governance Two key issues interact to provide governance issues arising from the globalization of business. First is the existence of unpriced externalities. These impose costs, for example, pollution, on the local economy and environment. Second is the remoteness of production and service activities from their ultimate owners or controllers, for example, shareholders. These two factors interact because the mechanism for correcting negative externalities becomes difficult to implement due to remoteness and lack of immediate responsibility. They are also becoming regional leaders. The attempt to design policies to attract every stage of the global factory is futile, resulting in the subsequent increase in the value of differentiated factor productivities and the role of industrial policy choices. The issue of control of governance of global factories is a more subtle issue. There are barriers to entry to markets, 9 locations, new functions (R&D, marketing) and new products (innovation, product improvement). These barriers often are of a different nature, for instance, barriers to diversification (of products) differ from barriers to internationalization.
26. The various tools of fiscal policy such as budget, taxation, public expenditure, public works and public debt can go a long way for maintaining full employment without inflationary and deflationary forces in underdeveloped economies.
Obviously, taxation and public expenditure is a powerful instrument in the hands of public authority which greatly affect the changes in disposal income, consumption and investment.
During inflation, such measures are adopted which help to wipe off the excessive purchasing power and consumer demand. Tax burden is raised in such a manner as it may not retard new investment. Keeping in view all facts in mind, it is stated that fiscal policy plays very significant role for promoting economic development and stability of under developed countries.
It is illustrated by the following points:
1. To Mobilize Resources:
The foremost aim of fiscal policy in underdeveloped countries is to mobilize resources in the private and public sectors. Generally, the national income and per capita income is very low due to low rate of savings. Therefore, the governments of such countries through forced savings pushes the rate of investment and capital formation which in turn accelerates the rate of economic development.
2. To Accelerate the Rate of Growth:
Fiscal policy helps to accelerate the rate of economic growth by raising the rate of investment in public as well as private sectors. Therefore, various tools of fiscal policy as taxation, public borrowing, deficit financing and surpluses of public enterprises should be used in a combined manner so that they may not adversely affect the consumption, production and distribution of wealth.
3. To Encourage Socially Optimal Investment:
In underdeveloped countries, fiscal policy encourages the investment into those productive channels which are considered socially and economically desirable. This means optimal investment which promotes economic development and avoids wasteful and unproductive investment. They tend to raise productivity and widen the market to enjoy external economies. At the same time, unproductive investment is checked and diverted towards productive and socially desirable channels.
4. Inducement to Investment and Capital Formation:
Fiscal policy plays crucial role in underdeveloped countries by making investment in strategic industries and services of public utility on one side and induces investment in private sector by giving assistance to new industries and introduces modern techniques of production. Economic development is a most dynamic process which involves changes in the size and quality of population, tastes, knowledge and social institutions. Keeping all factors in mind, if social marginal productivity in socially desirable projects is low, fiscal policy should be framed to raise social marginal productivity and to divert resources to that productive channels where the social marginal productivity is the highest.
27.Microfinance, also called microcredit, is a type of banking service provided to unemployed or low-income individuals or groups who otherwise would have no other access to financial services. While institutions participating in the area of microfinance most often provide lending—microloans can range from as small as $100 to as large as $25,000—many banks offer additional services such as checking and savings accounts as well as micro-insurance products, and some even provide financial and business education. The goal of microfinance is to ultimately give impoverished people an opportunity to become self-sufficient.
For more than twenty years microfinance has been viewed as a key poverty reduction strategy. However, more recently its real value and impact have been questioned, with both economic and social problems linked to it. Findings of the study Microfinance and the business of poverty reduction: Critical perspectives from rural Bangladesh suggest these concerns are well founded.
The research reports the results of an ethnographic study of microfinance in three villages in rural Bangladesh, all of which had been targeted by microfinance organisations. It focuses on households and individuals and documented the experience of microfinance borrowers over time. The study involved observations of borrower meetings, focus groups and in-depth interviews, and was conducted by two teams of researchers and their locally based associates. Data collection focused on subjective experiences arising from a life of poverty, such as feelings of vulnerability and helplessness. The study approached the problem of poverty reduction schemes from the perspective of the receivers of microfinance rather than from the supply side, the microfinance organisations themselves. It found that microfinance has led to increasing levels of indebtedness among already impoverished communities and exacerbated several dimensions of vulnerability, these being:
1) Economic vulnerability – The study finds that microfinance clients had little success in escaping poverty. Loans were primarily used for necessities such as food and medicine, home repair, or education, rather than income generating activity. Added to that, the income generating schemes advocated by providers and NGOs, specifically agricultural ones, did not yield profitable results. When borrowers took out further loans from alternative providers to pay off existing loans, they found themselves trapped in a spiral of debt. Microfinance can therefore exacerbate poverty, the very thing it is supposed to combat.
2) Social vulnerability – Communities that have strong familial and social networks are considered better equipped to deal with poverty. “Solidarity groups” consisting of family, friends and associates often stuck together and supported family members dealing with debt. However, due to the fear of debt default, surveillance increased within and between groups of borrowers and led to an erosion of trust, even amongst family members. Aggressive repayment tactics from lenders often involved public shaming of defaulters which adversely affected their social ties with both community and family. The “solidarity groups” that were the basis of the social collateral of microfinance loans thus led to an erosion of bonding social capital.
3) Environmental vulnerability – the findings indicate that traditional farming practices in the villages are increasingly supplanted by income generating schemes encouraged by microfinance providers and NGOs, such as maize growing. As well as a high occurrence of crop failure due to inexperience and the generally unsuitable weather conditions, there is also evidence that maize growing has an adverse effect on the quality of the region’s soil and thus on the viability of future farming. The aggressive promotion of non-traditional cash crops can result in environmental vulnerabilities and threats to sustainable farming.

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http://kokminglee.125mb.com/economics/theoriesdevelopment2.html
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Sen, Amartya, 1993. Development as freedom. New York: Oxford University Press. 2001
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Webster, Andrew. 1984. Theories of Underdevelopment.” In Introduction to the Sociology of Development. p. 81-93. London: Macmillan Publishers.
Rostow, Walter W. 1960.The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-communist Manifesto
Todaro, Michael and Stephen Smith. 2012. “What Do We Mean by Development?” in Economic Development. (11h edition). P. 14-25. England: Pearson Education Limited.

6. •Theory Of Modernization:It is used to analyze the processes in which modernization in societies take place. The theory looks at which aspects of countries are beneficial and which constitute obstacles for economic development.Modernization theory observes traditions and pre-existing institutions of so-called “primitive” societies as obstacles to modern economic growth. Modernization which is forced from outside upon a society might induce violent and radical change, but according to modernization theorists it is generally worth this side effect. Critics point to traditional societies as being destroyed and slipping away to a modern form of poverty without ever gaining the promised advantages of Modernization.
•Theory Of Globalization:In terms of the globalization process that is taking place under current worldwide economic conditions, two main topics in international political economy are: (a) the structure of the international economic system; and (b) how this structure has changed (2). They can be addressed through the application of the theory of globalization from the development perspective. This globalization approach suggests that the structure of the global system, and the roles that countries play within the international division of trade and labor, is crucial in understanding a wide array of social, political, and economic changes within particular countries. The basic claim is that international connections, roles, and relationships are important variables in any analysis which tries to explain various dimensions of development -economic growth, for example- trade, financial links and communications among countries.
•Dependency theory: This theory is essentially a follow up to structuralist thinking, and shares many of its core ideas. Whereas structuralists did not consider that development would be possible at all unless a strategy of delinking and rigorous ISI was pursued, dependency thinking could allow development with external links with the developed parts of the globe. However, this kind of development is considered to be “dependent development”, i.e., it does not have an internal domestic dynamic in the developing country and thus remains highly vulnerable to the economic vagaries of the world market. Dependency thinking starts from the notion that resources flow from the ‘periphery’ of poor and underdeveloped states to a ‘core’ of wealthy countries, which leads to accumulation of wealth in the rich states at the expense of the poor states. Contrary to modernization theory, dependency theory states that not all societies progress through similar stages of development. Dependency theorists argue that underdeveloped countries remain economically vulnerable unless they reduce their connections to the world
market.Dependency theory states that poor nations provide natural resources and cheap labor for developed nations, without which the developed nations could not have the standard of living which they enjoy.
•Theory Of World Systems:Also known as world-systems analysis or the world-systems perspective is a multidisciplinary approach to world history and social change which emphasizes the world-system (and not nation states) as the primary (but not exclusive) unit of social analysis.”World-system” refers to the inter-regional and transnational division of labor, which divides the world into core countries, semi-periphery countries, and the periphery countries.Core countries focus on higher skill, capital-intensive production, and the rest of the world focuses on low-skill, labor-intensive production and extraction of raw materials.World-Systems Theory can be useful in understanding world history and the core countries’ motives for imperialization and other involvements like the US aid following natural disasters in developing Central American countries or imposing regimes on other core states.With the interstate system as a system constant, the relative economic power of the three tiers points to the internal inequalities that are on the rise in states that appear to be developing.

7.• Corruption :Corruption is a global menace, but Nigeria suffers most of all. People are starting to see that this nation has a corrupt culture. For many years, Nigeria has earned a considerable sum of money from the rock-tar, which has gone down the cesspool that was created by corruption.roblem is that money from oil does not flow to the people.
The top public officials are wealthy because they hide behind the falsehood that public money belongs to no one. The national news is full of information on how public officials are buying million-dollar mansions and accumulating stolen public funds in financial establishments abroad.
• Poor human development :In general, human resources play a significant role in the success or failure of any nation or organization. Most of the problems facing the Nigerian economy reflect the bad quality of the nation’s economic health and human development.
This is a situation that has been abandoned for many years. The problems facing educational institutions directly influence the issues in the country’s economy. The situation will continue to be terrible if the nation remains on the same undeveloped level as it is now.
• Environment and health issues :The health and environmental standards of the country are in deplorable condition. In 2015, Amnesty International announced that Nigeria experiences hundreds of oil spills annually in the Niger Delta, mainly because of sabotage, pipe erosion, and uncaring attitude by oil firms. This is also responsible for the hike in oil prices.
Oil spills wilt the soil nutrients and other essential elements. This weakening can damage the communities that farm and fish in the Niger Delta and the general economy.
Litters and waste products are strewn all over the streets and roads in Nigeria. Improperly disposed rubbish promotes the spread of diseases, and this will end up affecting the Nigerian economy.
Another main problem facing the country’s economy is the health issue. People suffer from a lack of medicines and inexperienced doctors with bad education. What is more, corruption abounds in this area? In our country, if you have no money, you will not get proper treatment.
• INADEQUATE FINANCIAL MARKETS:Missing markets usually arise because of information failure. Because of asymmetric information lenders in credit markets may not be aware of the full creditworthiness of borrowers. This pushes up interest rates for all borrowers, even those with a good credit prospect..
• POPULATION:Is a considerable constraint on economic growth, either, and most commonly, because there is too a high rate of population growth for the country’s current resources, or because the population is growing too slowly or declining as a result of war, famine, or disease. Many economists see population growth as the single biggest issue facing developing countries.

8..Empower a woman and you are empowering the whole world cause Women’s economic empowerment boosts productivity, increases economic diversification and income equality in addition to other positive development outcomes. For example, increasing the female employment rates in OECD countries to match that of Sweden, could boost GDP by over US$6 trillion, recognizing, however, that. growth does not automatically lead to a reduction in gender-based inequality. Conversely, it is estimated that gender gaps cost the economy some 15% of GDP.

9..Poverty can be caused by so many things:
Gender inequality, conflict, hunger, malnutrition, poor healthcare systems, little or no access to clean water, sanitation and hygiene, climate, lack of education, poor public works and infrastructure etc.
To Reduce Poverty, Government Policies could include:
•Minimum wages. Regulation of labor markets, for example, statutory minimum wages
• Direct provision of goods/services – subsidized housing, free education and healthcare.
•Means-tested welfare benefits to the poorest in society; for example, unemployment benefit, food stamps, income support and housing
•Free market policies to promote economic growth – hoping that rising living standards will filter down to the poorest in society.

10..Large family does not make economic sense for the following reasons :A large family size will bring about overuse of public facilities. It will also increase government expenses on the provision of amenities. It can bring about overuse of land resources which will definitely affect the economy of the nation. It brings about increase in crime rate because of care for a large population.large family size leads to the following:
• Increase in crime rate.
• High cost of living.
• Scarcity of food and water.
• General inflation.
• Poor health facilities.

11..There are many factors that cause unemployment and underemployment in the developing world, especially in the cities. Following are a few of the most common causes:
• Supply and demand:Underemployment also occurs when the supply of workers is greater than its demand. A few reasons can be an increase in population growth or a decrease in the demand for a product.
•Business cycle:One of the main reasons for underemployment is the business cycle the economy currently operates in. If the economy is currently in a recession or economic depression, it is unlikely that organizations will be hiring for many full-time positions.
• Technological changes:Sometimes technology takes the job of a worker who would have previously been employed in a position that has since become automated. For example, vending machines have taken the jobs of some cafeteria workers and cashiers, and ATMs have replaced some bank tellers.
People continue to migrate to the cities from rural areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job are very slim due to other factors which include, inequitable land distribution, environmental degradation, high vulnerability to natural disasters, violent conflicts, better education opportunities,diverse services, and less social discrimination in the cities.
• Unbridled growth of the Population
• Rural-urban migration
• Misguided urban-planning policies.
People migrate to the city even when there is no job because of the following reasons:
– Economic and social policy that affect rural and urban real incomes: Recognize that every economic and social policy that affects rural and urban real incomes will influence the migration process directly or indirectly. As a result, the pattern of sectoral and geographic economic activity, income distribution, and even population growth will change. Because all economic policies have direct and indirect effects on the level and growth of urban and rural incomes, or both, they will all have an impact on the form and scale of migrant flows.
– The concentration of social services in urban areas has led to overurbanization: Workers considering a move will assess a variety of things, including housing, stores, transportation, schools, hospitals, and other facilities. Visitors who travel outside of an African capital city are likely to be surprised by the economic and social disparities that exist between the metropolis and the surrounding countryside. These things, when combined, motivate people to migrate even when there are no jobs.

12. There is a saying that “A healthy nation is a wealthy nation” so Yes I support the motion that better health spur successful development.this is because, in instrumental terms, health impacts economic growth in a number of ways. For example, it reduces production losses due to worker illness, it increases the productivity of adult as a result of better nutrition, and it lowers absenteeism rates and improves learning among school children i.e to say:
• It increase life expectancy.
• Higher productivity.
• Improved quality of human life.
• Increase in force.
• labourEnhanced human capital development.

13. Impact of poor public health on development :Poor health can limit one’s ability to work, reduce economic opportunities, inhibit educational attainment, and lead to medical debt and bankruptcy.
• Reduces labour force.
• Decrease in quality of human life to contributes to economic development.
• Decrease in productivity.
• Reduces life expectancy.
• Decrease in human capital development.

SOLUTIONS
• High investment in the health sector.
• Increase in health care infrastructures.
• Better health care equipments.
• Employment of qualified medical practitioners.
• Public enlightenment on better public health care maintenance.

MACHI CHINEDU CLEMENT
2018/242796
ECONOMICS/SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY

6a. Four common theories of development economics include mercantilism, nationalism, the linear stages of growth model, and structural-change theory.
Mercantilism

Mercantilism is thought to be one of the earliest forms of development economics that created practices to promote the success of a nation. It was a dominant economic theory practiced in Europe from the 16th to the 18th centuries. The theory promoted augmenting state power by lowering exposure to rival national powers.
Mercantilism held that a nation’s prosperity depended on its supply of capital, represented by bullion (gold, silver, and trade value) held by the state. It emphasised the maintenance of a high positive trade balance (maximising exports and minimising imports) as a means of accumulating this bullion. To achieve a positive trade balance, protectionist measures such as tariffs and subsidies to home industries were advocated. Mercantilist development theory also advocated colonialism.

Economic Nationalism

Economic nationalism reflects policies that focus on domestic control of capital formation, the economy, and labor, using tariffs or other barriers. It restricts the movement of capital, goods, and labor.

Economic nationalists do not generally agree with the benefits of globalization and unlimited free trade. They focus on a policy that is isolationist so that the industries within a nation are able to grow without the threat of competition from established companies in other countries.

Linear Stages of Growth Model

The linear stages of growth model was used to revitalize the European economy after World War II.

This model states that economic growth can only stem from industrialization. The model also agrees that local institutions and social attitudes can restrict growth if these factors influence people’s savings rates and investments.
This theory modifies Marx’s stages theory of development and focuses on the accelerated accumulation of capital, through the utilization of both domestic and international savings as a means of spurring investment, as the primary means of promoting economic growth and, thus, development.[4] The linear-stages-of-growth model posits that there are a series of five consecutive stages of development that all countries must go through during the process of development. These stages are “the traditional society, the pre-conditions for take-off, the take-off, the drive to maturity, and the age of high mass-consumption”[18] Simple versions of the Harrod–Domar model provide a mathematical illustration of the argument that improved capital investment leads to greater economic growth.

Structural-Change Theory

The structural-change theory focuses on changing the overall economic structure of a nation, which aims to shift society from being a primarily agrarian one to a primarily industrial one.

For example, Russia before the communist revolution was an agrarian society. When the communists overthrew the royal family and took power, they rapidly industrialized the nation, allowing it to eventually become a superpower.
Structural-change theory deals with policies focused on changing the economic structures of developing countries from being composed primarily of subsistence agricultural practices to being a “more modern, more urbanized, and more industrially diverse manufacturing and service economy.” There are two major forms of structural-change theory: W. Lewis’ two-sector surplus model, which views agrarian societies as consisting of large amounts of surplus labor which can be utilized to spur the development of an urbanized industrial sector, and Hollis Chenery’s patterns of development approach, which holds that different countries become wealthy via different trajectories. The pattern that a particular country will follow, in this framework, depends on its size and resources, and potentially other factors including its current income level and comparative advantages relative to other nations.

6b. Underdevelopment is viewed as an externally-induced process which is perpetuated by a small but powerful domestic elite who form an alliance with the international capitalist system. The “development of underdevelopment” is therefore systemic and path-dependent
There are two theories on the causes of undevelopment: the internal causation and external causation theories. Proponents of “internal causation theory” assume that a nation’s lack of development is a result from its failure to use its resources to stimulate modern economic growth. The reason of underdevelopment is derived from society’s failure to establish required products.
External factors are the foundation for the underdevelopment in most developing countries which are still hindering development by allowing more developed countries to exploit them. Even though internal adjustments must also take place in order to see development, the external factors must change first allowing for internal adjustments.

7. The pace of development can be slowed down, or even reversed, by various factors affecting the economy. Some of these constraints can be dealt with through economic and social policy, while others may be difficult to resolve.

The constraints on development include:
Inefficiencies within the micro-economy.
Imbalances in the structure of the economy.
A rapidly growing or declining population.
Lack of financial capital.
Lack of human capital.
Poor governance and corruption.
Missing markets.
Over-exploitation of environmental capital.
Barriers to trade.

Lack of real capital
Many developing economies do not have sufficient financial capital to engage in public or private investment.

Population

Population is a considerable constraint on economic growth, either, and most commonly, because there is too a high rate of population growth for the country’s current resources, or because the population is growing too slowly or declining as a result of war, famine, or disease. Many economists see population growth as the single biggest issue facing developing countries.

Corruption

Some developing economies suffer from corruption in many different sectors of their economies. Corruption comes in many forms, including the theft of public funds by politicians and government employees, and the theft and misuse of overseas aid. Bribery is also alleged to be a persistent threat, and tends to involve the issuing of government contracts. In some developing economies, bribery is the norm, and this seriously weakens the operation of the price mechanism.

Inadequate financial markets

Missing markets usually arise because of information failure. Because of asymmetric information lenders in credit markets may not be aware of the full creditworthiness of borrowers. This pushes up interest rates for all borrowers, even those with a good credit prospect.

8. Enhancing women’s participation in development is essential not only for achieving social justice but also for reducing poverty. Worldwide experience shows clearly that supporting a stronger role for women contributes to economic growth, it improves child survival and overall family health, and it reduces fertility, thus helping to slow population growth rates. In short, investing in women is central to sustainable development
When more women work, economies grow. Women’s economic empowerment boosts productivity, increases economic diversification and income equality in addition to other positive development outcomes. For example, increasing the female employment rates in OECD countries to match that of Sweden, could boost GDP by over USD 6 trillion, recognizing, however, that. growth does not automatically lead to a reduction in gender-based inequality. Conversely, it is estimated that gender gaps cost the economy some 15 percent of GDP.

9. Although there are many causes of poverty in Nigeria, some of the main culprits are calamitous weather, weak infrastructure and gender inequality that prevents women from contributing to the economy. One of the factors that generate poverty is the prevalence of natural disasters.

1. Government Corruption

Since its founding, government corruption has plagued Nigeria. This corruption is one of the major causes of poverty in Nigeria. Government officials often take payments from oil companies that are supposed to go into public trusts—payments that can often total more than $1 billion—and instead siphon that money into their own personal bank accounts.

When government officials engage in this kind of corruption, the poor and underserved populations within Nigeria are inevitably hurt. If these large sums of money stopped going into government officials’ pockets, the Nigerian government could use that money to build up the country’s infrastructure—electricity, roads, running water and more.

2. Lack of Economic Infrastructure

An infrastructure that supports economic growth at every level is essential to pull people out of poverty. In Nigeria, economic infrastructure includes things like access to micro-credit that help farmers invest in their crops and entrepreneurs lift their businesses off the ground. Micro-credit is an especially important tool for Nigerian women working to escape poverty.

Female entrepreneurship and autonomy can provide financial stability to entire families and, by extension, larger communities. Another one of the main causes of poverty in Nigeria is the simple fact that many Nigerians, especially in rural communities, do not have the means to escape their circumstances. Setting up economic structures that empower Nigerian people is vital to combating poverty within the country.

3. Poor Access to Education

Economic infrastructure is not the only infrastructure that is lacking in Nigeria. Currently, a lack of a robust educational system underserves many of the poorest Nigerians. 10.5 million Nigerian children do not attend school at all, and 60% of those children are girls.
These problems are especially profound in the northern, more rural parts of Nigeria. Terrorist groups such as Boko Haram that vilify Western education further exasperate the situation. Education gives many the skills they need to enter the workforce and escape impoverishment, and the lack of educational opportunity is one of the truly devastating causes of poverty in Nigeria.

4. Poor Access to Healthcare

Nigeria might be the most populous country in Africa, but they are running low on healthcare professionals. The current ratio of nurses, midwives and doctors to patients is 1.95 to 1,000. With such a low density of medical care available, many people in Nigeria either go completely without medical care or without enough medical care. But sickness is costly, and oftentimes can trap people into never-ending cycles of poverty. Improving Nigerians’ access to healthcare is an essential step to reduce the amount of poverty in Nigeria.
Inequality and marginalisation
Conflict
Hunger, malnutrition
Poor healthcate systems
Poor Access to water, sanitation and hygiene
Climate change
Lack of education
Poor infrastructure
Lack of Government support
Solutions to Poverty
1. EQUALITY AND REPRESENTATION FOR ALL

One of the main causes of extreme poverty is marginalization — the systemic barriers that lead to groups of people going without representation in their communities. In order for a community or country to work its way out of poverty, all groups must be involved in the decision-making process — especially when it comes to having a say in the things that determine your place in society.

2. BUILDING RESILIENCE — CLIMATE AND OTHERWISE…

Poverty is most likely to occur when there is a high combination of marginalization and risk — with risk being its own combination of a person or group’s level of vulnerability and the hazards they face.

4. INCREASE ACCESS TO EDUCATION

According to UNESCO, if all students in low-income countries had just basic reading skills (nothing else), an estimated 171 million people could escape extreme poverty. If all adults completed secondary education, we could cut the global poverty rate by more than half. Education develops skills and abilities, corrects some of the imbalances that come out of marginalization, and decreases both risk and vulnerability.

5. IMPROVE FOOD SECURITY AND ACCESS TO CLEAN WATER

Simply eating three meals a day and getting a healthy amount of calories and nutrients can go a long way to addressing the cycle of poverty. When a person doesn’t have enough to eat, they lack the strength and energy needed to work. Contaminated water can lead to debilitating illnesses.

What’s more, improving access to clean water can mean that those who live in rural communities (often women and girls — see our first point on marginalization and equality) will save time walking to their nearest water point. Current estimates suggest that women and girls collectively spend 200 million hours every day walking long distances to fetch water.

6. END WAR AND CONFLICT

No war means that budgets allocated to cover the cost of conflict can be used to deliver public services. It also reduces risks faced by the most vulnerable communities, and ensures that goals towards equality and inclusion can be maintained.
Policies to tackle poverty
In summary, to reduce poverty, government policies could include:

• Means-tested welfare benefits to the poorest in society; for example, unemployment benefit, food stamps, income support and housing benefit.

• Minimum wages. Regulation of labour markets, for example, statutory minimum wages

• Free market policies to promote economic growth – hoping that rising living standards will filter down to the poorest in society.

• Direct provision of goods/services – subsidised housing, free education and healthcare

10. Rapid growth has led to uncontrolled urbanization, which has produced overcrowding, destitution, crime, pollution, and political turmoil. Rapid growth has outstripped increases in food production, and population pressure has led to the overuse of arable land and its destruction. Rapid growth has also hampered economic development and caused massive unemployment. Food scarcity effects economic development in two respects. Firstly, inadequate supply of food leads to undernourishment of the people which lowers their productivity. It further reduces the production capacity of the workers, Secondly, the deficiency of food compels to import food grains which places as unnecessarily strain on their foreign exchange resources. Rapid growth of population is largely responsible for the perpetuation of vicious circle of poverty in underdeveloped countries. On account of rapid growth of population people are required to spend a major part of their income on bringing up their children.

Thus savings and rate of capital formation remain low, reduction in per capita income, rise in general price level leading to sharp rise in cost of living. No improvement in agricultural and industrial technology, shortage of essential commodities, low standard of living, mass unemployment etc. As a result the entire economy of an underdeveloped country is surrounded by the vicious circle of poverty.

11. Keynes analyzed the cyclical type of unemployment and asserted that it was caused by deficiency of aggregate demand. The nature of unemployment in developing countries is quite different; rather than being cyclical it is of chronic and long-term nature.

It is now almost universally recognized that the chronic unemployment and underemployment in less developed countries are not due to the lack of aggregate effective demand which, according to J.M. Keynes, was responsible for unemployment in developed countries in times of depression. Rather it is stated to be due to the lack of land, capital and other complementary resources in relation to the total population and labour force.
Now, if the population grows faster than the stock of capital of a country, the entire addition to the labour force cannot be absorbed in productive employment because not enough instruments of production would be there to employ them. Since in less developed countries, the stock of capital has not been growing at a rate fast enough to keep pace with the growth of population, the ability to offer productive employment is very limited.

This has resulted in surplus labour which is manifested in the existence of huge magnitude of underemployment or disguised unemployment and open unemployment in both the rural and urban areas.

Capital as the major bottleneck to growth of employment was made popular by Harrod-Domar model of economic growth in which capital accumulation plays a pivotal role and according to which rate of growth of output depends upon the proportion of national income saved, divided by the capital-output ratio (g = s/v, where g stands for growth rate, s for the proportion of income saved and v for the capital-output ratio).

12. health affects economic growth directly
through labor productivity and the economic burden of illnesses, for example. Health also indirectly impacts economic growth since aspects such as child health affect the future income of people through the impact health has on education. This indirect impact is easier
to understand if it is observed on a family level. When a family is healthy, both the mother and the father can hold a job, earn money which allows them to feed, protect and send their children to school. Healthy and well-nourished children will perform better in school and a better performance in school will positively
impact their future income. If parents ensure that their children have a high probability of reaching adulthood, in general they will have fewer children and they will be able to invest more in health and education for each of
them. Additionally, the loss of health affects the poor to a greater extent since the main, and at times, only asset they have is their body. When they become ill they have fewer alternative solutions and suffer greater consequences

13. Ill health, in turn, is a major cause of poverty. This is partly due to the costs of seeking health care, which include not only out-of-pocket spending on care (such as consultations, tests and medicine), but also transportation costs and any informal payments to providers. It is also due to the considerable loss of income associated with illness in developing countries, both of the breadwinner, but also of family members who may be obliged to stop working or attending school to take care of an ill relative. In addition, poor families coping with illness might be forced to sell assets to cover medical expenses, borrow at high interest rates or become indebted to the community.

Solutions to tackle poor public health
• Reducing the direct cost of care at the point of service, e.g. through reducing/abolishing user fees for the poor or expanding health insurance to the poor (including coverage, depth and breadth).

• Increasing efficiency of care to reduce total consumption of care, e.g. by limiting “irrational drug prescribing,” strengthening the referral system, or improving the quality of providers (especially at the lower level).

• Reducing inequalities in determinants of health status or health care utilization, such as reducing distance (through providing services closer to the poor), subsidizing travel costs, targeted health promotion, conditional cash transfers.

• Expanding access to care by using the private sector or public-private partnerships.

Assure an Adequate Local Public Health Infrastructure

Assuring an adequate local public health infrastructure means maintaining the basic capacities foundational to a well-functioning public health system such as data analysis and utilization; health planning; partnership development and community mobilization; policy development, analysis and decision support; communication; and public health research, evaluation and quality improvement.

Promote Healthy Communities and Healthy Behavior

Promoting healthy communities and healthy behaviors means activities that improve health in a population, such as investing in healthy families; engaging communities to change policy, systems or environments to promote positive health or prevent adverse health; providing information and education about healthy communities or population health status; and addressing issues of health equity, health disparities, and the social determinants of health.

Prevent the Spread of Communicable Disease

Preventing the spread of infectious disease means preventing diseases that are caused by infectious agents, such as by detecting acute infectious diseases, assuring the reporting of infectious diseases, preventing the transmission of disease, and implementing control measures during infectious disease outbreaks.  

Protect Against Environmental Health Hazards

Protecting against environmental health hazards means addressing aspects of the environment that pose risks to human health, such as monitoring air and water quality, developing policies and programs to reduce exposure to environmental health risks and promote healthy environments, and identifying and mitigating environmental risks such as foodborne and waterborne diseases, radiation, occupational health hazards, and public health nuisances.

Prepare and Respond To Emergencies

Preparing and responding to emergencies means engaging in activities that prepare public health departments to respond to events and incidents and assist communities in recovery, such as providing leadership for public health preparedness activities within a community; developing, exercising and periodically reviewing response plans for public health threats; and developing and maintaining a system of public health workforce readiness, deployment, and response.

Assure Health Services

Assuring health services means engaging in activities such as assessing the availability of health-related services and health care providers in local communities; identifying gaps and barriers; convening community partners to improve community health systems; and providing services identified as priorities by the local assessment and planning process.

Name: Ik-Ukennaya Ezekiel
Department: Economics
Reg no:2018/249 788
Email:ezekielikukennaya4@gmail.com

Which are the most influential theories of development, and are they compatible? Is underdevelopment an internally (domestically) or externally (internationally) induced phenomenon?

Modernization theory :

Modernization theory had two major aims

It attempted to explain why poorer countries have failed to develop, focussing on what cultural and economic conditions might act as ‘barriers’ to development

It aimed to provide a non-communist solution to poverty in the developing world by suggesting that economic change (in the form of Capitalism) and the introduction of western values and culture could play a key role in bringing about modernisation.

Modernization Is used to analyze the processes in which transformation from crude to global economy in societies take place. The theory looks at which aspects of countries are beneficial and which constitute obstacles for economic development. The idea is that development assistance targeted at those particular aspects can lead to modernization of crude or ‘backward’ societies. Various scholars from various research disciplines have contributed to modernization theory.

Structural-Change Theory
The structural-change theory focuses on changing the overall economic structure of a nation, which aims to shift society from being a primarily agrarian one to a primarily industrial one.

For example, Russia before the communist revolution was an agrarian society. When the communists overthrew the royal family and took power, they rapidly industrialized the nation, allowing it to eventually become a superpower.

Are the development theories compatible?

Modernization theory and structural change theory are compatible because both theories tends to focus on transformation of the society from crude/agrarian society to global/advanced society.

Is underdevelopment an internally or externally induced phenomenon?
Underdevelopment is induced by both internal and external phenomenon.
Development is fostered locally and internationally in every given economy ,but it depends more on the internal phenomenon ( the attitude of the locals to Development).

External phenomenon affects the economy through it’s operations :
They include international trade, globalization, sustainable development, the effects of epidemics, such as HIV, Corona Virus and the impact of catastrophes on economic and human development.

7.What constraints most hold back accelerated growth, depending on local conditions?

The following are the factors that most hold back accelerated economic growth, depending on local conditions:
Culture of the people
Government policies
Poor utilization of resources
Lack of Infrastructure
Insecurity
Lack of managerial leaders as head of state

8. How can improvements in the role and status of women have an especially beneficial impact on development prospects?
Improvements in the role and status of women have beneficial impact on the economy in the sense that it increases the labour force of the economy. As we know increase in labour force leads to increase in productivity of an economy, if labour is efficiently employed.
9. What are the causes of extreme poverty and what policies have been most effective for improving the lives of the poorest of the poor?
Some of the causes of extreme poverty
widespread famines and lack of healthcare in poor developing countries were to blame.

Participants discussed factors such as the lack of crops in poorer countries, which made it virtually impossible to produce food, in effect leading to starvation and an increase of famines. Other participants in this group recognised that geography played a part, with some countries landlocked and without a natural water source, more prone to famines and droughts.

Other factors include:
Corrupt Government
Lack of Economic Infrastructure
Poor Access to Education
Poor Access to Healthcare
Effective policies for Improving the lives of the poorest of the poor among others are:
Equality and Representation for all
Increased Access to Education
Micro-financing
Job Creation
Access to Healthcare
Economic Security

10. Rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations? Do large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity?

Rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations?
Rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations.when there is increase in population growth it leads to overpopulation which occurs when population is greater that than resources that can be enough to cater for the population. And this over population causes social vices that disrupt economic growth.

Do large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity?
Large families doesn’t make sense in an environment experiencing poverty and financial insecurity
In general, although overall income rises somewhat with family size, an increase in the number of children appears to reduce the family’s standard of living, especially in young families with small children. Current consumption increases as the number of children increases: families with 4 or more children in which the household head is under the age of 35 and has had more than 12 years of education tend to spend 40% more than childless couples of similar age and educational level. Despite the increased spending, per capita consumption falls for all age and education categories. Larger families devote more of their income to necessities and less to luxuries. Among young couples in which the household head has had 9 to 12 years of education, the proportion of income used to buy food rises from 15% if there are no children present to 25% if there are 4 or more. The proportion of food expenditures devoted to meals eaten out also falls steadily as the number of children rises.
In general larger families may lead to unemployment.

11. Why is there so much unemployment and underemployment in the developing world, especially in the cities, and why do people continue to migrate to the cities from rural areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job are very slim?

a)High and Rapid Population Growth

One of the major factors responsible for the high level of unemployment in developing countries is the rapid growth in population. There has been an increase in the growth of the labor forces along with the inadequate supply of jobs. The rapid population growth has been coupled with rural-urban migration. This has increased the population in cities thereby raising the level of joblessness.

b)Lack of quality education

Most employers believe that Nigerian graduates are unemployable. This is the result of the educational program which usually include theories and a lack of practical use of knowledge. Also, most tertiary educational courses lack entrepreneurial training. For example, a graduate of agriculture course knows the theory but lacks necessary practical agricultural skills.

c)Lack of infrastructure

Lack of good roads, steady and sustainable power supply has made the economy hostile to investors. The lack of infrastructure has led to the high cost of production. The absence of investors influences the number of available jobs. The operating companies also use fewer people because of the high cost of production.

d)Unstable and corrupt political environment

Another key problem is poor leadership and high level of corruption in the developing society. The failure of the government to perform their constitutional duties has resulted in the high level of unemployment. Also, the high level of corruption in a country among politicians has resulted in the mismanagement of the funds and resources supposed to be used for the creation of job opportunities for the people.

12 Wealthier societies are also healthier ones because they have more resources for improving nutrition and health care. But does better health also help spur successful development?

Improving human health and providing access to affordable, high quality health care is a key concern of all countries. It is not only an ethical and social imperative; it is also a necessary ingredient for the sustainable long-term development of our economies and societies. Good health improves people’s wellbeing. Healthy workers are more productive and healthy students learn better. In many developed countries, health care is one of the most important and dynamic growth sectors in the economy.

13. What is the impact of poor public health on the prospects for development, and what is needed to address these problems?

Poverty and poor health worldwide are inextricably linked. The causes of poor health for millions globally are rooted in political, social and economic injustices. Poverty is both a cause and a consequence of poor health. Poverty increases the chances of poor health. Poor health, in turn, traps communities in poverty. Infectious and neglected tropical diseases kill and weaken millions of the poorest and most vulnerable people each year.

what is needed to address these problems discussed above?

a) Investing in Education: One of the most important ways to improve health in developing countries is by educating citizens. Educating people enables them to obtain safer jobs, increased health literacy, take preventive healthcare measures, avoid riskier health behaviors and demand better-quality health services.

b) Increasing Health Benefits for the Poor: Poorer countries receive much lower health benefits than richer countries. In developing areas, the poor are subjected to higher risk of contracting diseases and lower access to quality healthcare. This is solely due to the cost of medicine, treatments and vaccinations.

c) Promoting Primary and Essential Healthcare: A way to improve health in developing countries involves governments providing cost-effective health packages for everyone. An example of this would be Ethiopia and Malawi, where governments have focused on achieving universal vaccine coverage, developing cleaner water supplies and creating better sanitation practices.

Name: Edeh Amarachukwu Jennifer
Reg. No: 2018/248241
Dept: Economics/Psychology

QUESTIONS

Following from the previous questions, clearly and convincingly answer the following Questions as the Special Adviser to Mr. President on Development and Employment Generation.

6. Which are the most influential theories of development, and are they compatible? Is underdevelopment an internally (domestically) or externally (internationally) induced phenomenon?

ANSWER

The most influential theories of development are the structural-change theory, nationalism and linear stages of growth model.

All three theories of development are compatible as they are pointing towards the direction of industrialization as a source of economic growth. They all agree on the policies of import substitution and barriers in order to encourage the growth of domestic industries.

Structural-Change Theory

This theory has its roots in South America. It talks about the continually changing structure of the nation’s economy. This change aims at transforming the society from just an agrarian nation to an industrial society.It is a development theory that highlights the structural aspect of the nation that limits the growth of the economy. It also explores the transformation of nations from subsistence production to industrialization.

Structuralists agree that the government has a role to play if a nation is to develop. They believe that underdeveloped countries ought to reduce dependency on just trade. They promote government interference for economic growth in terms of policies such as ISI (import substitution industrialization)

The structuralists emphasize self-sustaining growth which can only be achieved on the basis of increased export of manufactured goods and not just an overdependence on the export of primary goods. They encourage the use of trade barriers in order to ensure that to an
extent, local substitutes are used in place of imported products and promote the growth of infant industries. This would make sure that the local industries expand to a level where they can compete with their foreign counterparts.

The concept of this theory can be fully appreciated when we explore the economic growth of Russia after the communist overtook the royal leaders and industrialized the country. This change made Russia a powerful nation within a very short while. So concisely, structural change theory is simply the development of policies that intend to transform the structure of the economy of emerging nations.

Economic Nationalism

This theory simply involves policies that focus on formation of capital, control of labour and the economy using barriers such as tariffs. Economic nationalism promotes the restriction of the movement of goods, labor and capital. It dissuades international trade policies such as free trade policies and globalization.

Economic nationalism is the concept that a nation should promote it’s industries by limiting the level of competition from large companies from other nations.

Linear Stages of Growth Model

This model of development maintains that economic growth is only a result of industrialization. The linear stages of growth model emphasizes that institutions of a country can limit growth as long as they can influence the savings of individuals and households and the investment ratio. In fact, the model was employed to rejuvenate the European economy after World War II. Linear stages of growth model is a modification of Marx’s stages theory of development but it is more concerned with the accumulation of capital through public and private savings.

This theory postulates that there are five stages of development that all countries must go through during the process of development. These stages include the pre-conditions for take-off, the take-off, the drive to maturity, and the age of high mass-consumption.

6b. Is underdevelopment an internally (domestically) or externally (internationally) induced phenomenon?
ANSWER
Underdevelopment is generally viewed as an externally induced phenomenon that is put up by a significant few elites that are powerful. They usually form an alliance with international capitalist systems to ensure the achievement of their desires.

7. What constraints most hold back accelerated growth, depending on local conditions?

ANSWER
Certain factors pose a constraint to growth. These factors include:

Lack of infrastructure/infrastructural gap
Physical infrastructures such as telecommunication, transportation, schools, and hospitals have a huge impact on economic growth and development. In fact, research has proven that there’s a positive relationship between the quality of infrastructure and economic growth. Let’s consider Sub-Saharan Africa which loses 2.1% of gross domestic product from blackouts alone  due to limitation to infrastructure investment.. This is why many countries increase expenditure on infrastructure as the years advance.

Overdependence on natural commodities export/Primary Product Dependency
This indeed is the plaque of Africa and particularly, Nigeria. The reliance on the export of natural resources instead of manufactured goods has become a constraint to development in these areas. Despite being rich in natural resources, for many African countries this is a curse rather than a blessing.

The Savings Gap
Its no secret that savings is the bridge to capital-intensive investments and lack of adequate funding is a cause of extreme poverty and a constraint to growth. This remains the problem of low-income countries, they lack the income to expand capacity and create an enabling environment for foreign direct investments.

Unstable Incomes and Vulnerable Employment
The level of uncertainty of employment and income in certain underdeveloped countries such as Nigeria poses a constraint to economic growth and development. This makes poverty inevitable and reduces the level of capital investments.

8. How can improvements in the role and status of women have an especially beneficial impact on development prospects?
ANSWER
Today, women constitute 45.4 percent of the global workforce. Women’s formal and informal labor can transform a community from a relatively autonomous society to a participant in the national economy. Despite significant obstacles, women’s small businesses in rural developing communities not only can be an extended family’s lifeline, but can form a networked economic foundation for future generations. The role of women in the urban and rural workforce has expanded exponentially in recent decades. Indeed, when women are empowered to claim their rights and have access to land, leadership, opportunities and choices, the economy grows, food security is enhanced and prospects are improved for current and future generations.
9. What are the causes of extreme poverty, and what policies have been most effective for improving the lives of the poorest of the poor?

ANSWER
Studies have been conducted to expose the root causes of extreme poverty. Among them, the key causes of poverty includes:
Unemployment
Overpopulation
Lack of education
Lack of basic infrastructure
Corruption
Poor human capital development
Inequality and insecurity

However, certain policies have been effective in reducing poverty and they include:
Minimum wage policies
Unemployment benefits
Provision of funds for basic amenities such as healthcare and free education
Free skill acquisition
Youth empowerment programmes

10. Rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations? Do large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity?

ANSWER

Definitely, larger families especially in poor regions have never been reasonable choices. In as much as this is/was prevalent in nations practicing subsistence agriculture, overpopulation has been discovered to cause and aggravate poverty. This is why certain countries establish certain policies to limit the amount of children families can have.

11. Why is there so much unemployment and underemployment in the developing world, especially in the cities, and why do people continue to migrate to the cities from rural areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job are very slim?

ANSWER
Underemployment and unemployment is simply proof of lack of jobs. And as observed over time, lack of jobs or good jobs in developing countries is a result of all or either of the following:

Lack of physical capital in terms of industries, organizations and factories etc.
The replacement of labour with capital-intensive methods of production
The problem of unemployability
Lack of infrastructure to encourage foreign investors
Neglect of agriculture

Individuals migrate from rural areas to urban areas for several reasons, but the most prevalent are:
Access to better health facility
Better road infrastructure
Better education opportunity

12 Wealthier societies are also healthier ones because they have more resources for improving nutrition and health care. But does better health also help spur successful development?

ANSWER
Certainly, better health spurs economic development. A group of unhealthy workers cannot think or perform well. An unhealthy nation is a weak nation. The conditions for successful development include a high level of productivity and increase in output. And if we can consider the theories of development above, industrialization is the key for economic growth and development.

And so based on this, poor health care or lack of health facilities can significantly reduce the level of productivity as well as decrease output to a large extent.

13. What is the impact of poor public health on the prospects for development, and what is needed to address these problems?

ANSWER
As much as we may doubt it, poor health care definitely impacts badly on the economic growth and development of a nation. And as GDP is a major measure of economic growth, it is safe to say that poor health care can definitely cause a decrease in the GDP of a nation.

To begin with, healthy workers are more productive than workers who are not. Better health also raises per capita income through a number of other channels. Let’s consider a few reasons why this is so:
Healthy workers can save more: we’ve already discussed above how poor savings leads to underdevelopment, so it is ok to say that the lesser the savings of workers due to continuous expenditure or ill health, the lesser the prospects of development.

Reduced foreign direct investments: no foreign investor will find a nation with endemic diseases or poor health infrastructures an ideal place or environment for smooth business except they intend to solve these exact problems. And as we know, FDI is a huge driver of rapid development.

There are several approaches to solving these problems. Some include:
seeking external funds
Increased national allocation for healthcare
Ensuring the quality of hospitals
Investing in human healthcare

NAME:UGWU CYNTHIA UGOCHUKWU
REG:2018/245470
DEPT:ECONOMICS MAJOR
ECO391 ASSIGNMENT
6.WHAT IS THE MOST INFLUENTIAL THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT AND ARE THEY COMPATIBLE? IS UNDERDEVELOPMENT AN INTERNALL(DOMESTICALLY) OR EXTERNALLY ( INTERNATIONALLY) INDUCED PHENOMENON?
The most influential theories of development: modernization, dependency, world-
systems and globalization. These are the principal theoretical explanations to
interpret development efforts carried out especially in the developing countries.
THE THEORY OF MODERNIZATION
According to Alvin So, there are three main and historical elements which were
favorable to the inception of the modernization theory of development after the
Second World War. First, there was the rise of the United States as a
superpower. While other Western nations, such as Great Britain, France, and
Germany, were weakened by World War II, the United States emerged from the
war strengthened, and became a world leader with the implementation of the
Marshall Plan to reconstruct war-torn Western Europe.
Second, there was the spread of a united world communist movement. The
Former Soviet Union extended its influence not only to Eastern Europe, but also
to China and Korea. Third, there was the disintegration of European colonial
empires in Asia, Africa and Latin America, giving birth to many new nation-
states in the Third World. These nascent nation-states were in search of a
model of development to promote their economy and to enhance their political
independence.
According to the modernization theory, modern societies are more productive,
children are better educated, and the needy receive more welfare. According to
Smelser’s analysis, modern societies have the particular feature of social
structural differentiation, that is to say a clear definition of functions and political
roles from national institutions. Smelser argues that although structural
differentiation has increased the functional capacity of modern organizations, it
has also created the problem of integration, and of coordinating the activities of
the various new institutions.
THEORY OF DEPENDENCY
The foundations of the theory of dependency emerged in the 1950s from the
research of the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean sta Nomads. Mediterranean Perspectives.
ECLAC-. One of the most representative authors was Raul Prebisch. The
principal points of the Prebisch model are that in order to create conditions of
development within a country, it is necessary:
a) To control the monetary exchange rate, placing more governmental
emphasis on fiscal rather than monetary policy;
b) To promote a more effective governmental role in terms of national
development;
c) To create a platform of investments, giving a preferential role to national
capitals
d) To allow the entrance of external capital following priorities already
established in national plans for development;
e) To promote a more effective internal demand in terms of domestic
markets as a base to reinforce the industrialization process in Latin
America;
f) To generate a larger internal demand by increasing the wages and
salaries of workers, which will in turn positively affect aggregate demand
in internal markets.
The theory of dependency combines elements from a neo-marxist perspective
with Keynes’ economic theory – the liberal economic ideas which emerged in
the United States and Europe as a response to the depression years of the
1920s-. From the Keynes’ economic approach, the theory of dependency
embodies four main points: a) To develop an important internal effective
demand in terms of domestic markets; b) To recognize that the industrial sector
is crucial to achieving better levels of national development, especially due to
the fact that this sector, in comparison with the agricultural sector, can
contribute more value-added to products; c) To increase worker’s income as a
means of generating more aggregate demand in national market conditions.
THEORY OF WORLD SYSTEM
A central element from which the theory of world-systems emerged was the
different form that capitalism was taking around the world, especially since the decade of the 1960s. Starting in this decade, Third World countries had new
conditions in which to attempt to elevate their standards of living and improve
social conditions. These new conditions were related to the fact that the
international financial and trade systems began to have a more flexible
character, in which national government actions were having less and less
influence. Basically these new international economic circumstances made it
possible for a group of radical researchers led by Immanuel Wallerstein to
conclude that there were new activities in the capitalist world-economy which
could not be explained within the confines of the dependency.
THEORY OF GLOBALIZATION
The theory of globalization emerges from the global mechanisms of greater
integration with particular emphasis on the sphere of economic transactions. In
this sense, this perspective is similar to the world-systems approach. However,
one of the most important characteristics of the globalization position is its focus
and emphasis on cultural aspects and their communication worldwide. Rather
than the economic, financial and political ties, globalization scholars argue that
the main modern elements for development interpretation are the cultural links
among nations. In this cultural communication, one of the most important
factors is the increasing flexibility of technology to connect people around the
world.
Underdevelopment is viewed as an externally-induced process which is perpetuated by a small but powerful.
7.WHAT CONSTRAINTS MOST HOLD BACK ACCELERATED GROWTH, DEPENDING ON LOCAL CONDITIONS?
Debts
In the case of public sector funding, spare public funds are often used to repay previous debts, so there are fewer available funds for capital investment by government. This is often called the problem of debt overhang. The recent sovereign debt crisis has highlighted the problems faced by countries with large public debts, and how such debts limit the ability of government to inject spending into a developing economy.
Crowding out
In addition, because many developing economies have large public sectors, private investment may be crowded out by public sector borrowing. This means that a government may borrow from local capital markets, if indeed they exist, which causes a relative shortage of capital and raises interest rates.
Absence of credit markets
Finally, there is an absence of credit markets in many developing economies, and this discourages both lenders and borrowers. Credit markets often fail to form because of the extremely high risks associated with lending in developing countries. This is one reason for the importance of micro-finance initiatives commonly found across India, Pakistan and some parts of Africa.
Corruption
Some developing economies suffer from corruption in many different sectors of their economies. Corruption comes in many forms, including the theft of public funds by politicians and government employees, and the theft and misuse of overseas aid. Bribery is also alleged to be a persistent threat, and tends to involve the issuing of government contracts. In some developing economies, bribery is the norm, and this seriously weakens the operation of the price mechanism.
Productive inefficiency
Producers in less developed countries may not be able to produce at the lowest possible average cost. This may be because of the failure to apply technology to production, using obsolete technology, or because of the inability to achieve economies of scale. Opening up the economy to free trade may help reduce this type of inefficiency, and encourage technology transfer.
Allocative inefficiency
When developing economies remain closed to competition, when they are dominated by local monopolies, or when production is in the hands of the state, prices might not reflect the marginal cost of production. Opening up the economy to free trade, and privatisation of industry may help promote a more competitive environment, and reduce allocatively inefficiency.
8.HOW CAN IMPROVEMENT IN ROLES AND STATUS OF A WOMAN HAVE BENEFICIAL IMPACT ON DEVELOPMENT PROSPECTS?
Traditionally, women were considered to be full-time homemakers. Their responsibilities were to take care of their children and family. They didn’t have any role in the household earning. Over the years, the roles of women have changed. Here we are going to discuss it.
. Child-bearing role
Women now bear less number of children than they used to before. Most families now have one or two children. They even give birth to a child at a more matured age. Women now have children even without marriage.
. Education
More women are now getting literate and they are also pursuing higher education. This is creating an opportunity for them to work. They are also playing role in family decision making.
. Outside activities
Women are no longer staying home full-time. They are going to the market for doing grocery shopping, paying bills and doing all the works that only men used to do before. They are getting more involved in the outside works.
. Workplace
Women have entered the workplace. They also earn for their family just like men. However, the percentage of women in the workplace is still less than that of men as women have to take the major household responsibilities. The percentage of the part-time job is more in case of women. Women are still often seen in the caring or teaching sector. But now more women are entering the male-dominated sectors like politics, the legal system, etc. as well. More women are occupying senior management positions.
. Fighting for rights
Women now have a voice, unlike before. Families are no more male-dominated. Like men, women also make major life decisions. Women have stood against dowry and domestic violence. Even in the workplace, they fight against sexual abuse and equality. Child marriage is being stopped in many communities.
Men now play a role in child raising and household activities just like women. Both men and women now share their responsibilities both home and outside. Women now stand against any discrimination and torture. There have been lots of gender-issue related movements and many social organizations now fight for women’s rights. Women are now getting power even in rural areas. In many countries now women are the head of the state. Education has made women independent and they are no longer dependent on men to lead their lives.
Business laws have changed to allow more women in the workplace and giving them a comfortable environment to work in. Women can now stand tall like men and get equal opportunities in everything.
9.WHAT ARE THE CAUSES OF EXTREME POVERY AND WHAT POLICIES HAVE BEEN MOST EFFECTIVE FOR IMPROVING LIVES OF THE POOREST OF THE POOR?
1. Increase rate of rising population:
In the last 45 years, the population has increased at the whopping rate of 2.2% per annum. An
average of approx. 17 million people are added every year to the population which raises the demand for consumption goods considerably.
2. Less productivity in agriculture:
In agriculture, the productivity level is very low due to subdivided and fragmented holdings, lack of capital, use of traditional methods of cultivation, illiteracy etc. The very reason for poverty in the country is this factor only.
3. Less utilization of resources:
Underemployment and veiled unemployment of human resources and less utilization of resources have resulted in low production in the agricultural sector. This brought a downfall in their standard of living.
4. A short rate of economic development:
In India, the rate of economic development is very low what is required for a good level. Therefore, there persists a gap between the level of availability and requirements of goods and services. The net result is poverty.
5. Increasing price rise:
Poor is becoming poorer because of continuous and steep price rise. It has benefited a few people in the society and the persons in lower income group find it difficult to get their minimum needs.
6. Unemployment:
One of the main causes of poverty is the continuous expanding army of unemployed in our country. The job seeker is increasing in number at a higher rate than the expansion in employment opportunities.
7. Shortage of capital and able entrepreneurship:
The much-required capital and sustainable entrepreneurship play a very important role in accelerating the growth. But these are in short supply making it difficult to increase production significantly.
8. Social factors:
Our country’s social set up is very much backward with the rest of the world and not at all beneficial for faster development. The caste system, inheritance law, rigid traditions and customs are putting hindrances in the way of faster development and have aggravated the problem of poverty.
Policies for improving the live of the poor:
1. Create jobs
The best pathway out of poverty is a well-paying job. To get back to prerecession employment levels, we must create 5.6 million new jobs. At the current pace, however, we will not get there until July 2018. To kick-start job growth, the federal government should invest in job-creation strategies such as rebuilding our infrastructure; developing renewable energy sources; renovating abandoned housing; and making other common-sense investments that create jobs, revitalize neighborhoods, and boost our national economy. We should also build on proven models of subsidized employment to help the long-term unemployed and other disadvantaged workers re-enter the labor force.
2. Raise the minimum wage
In the late 1960s, a full-time worker earning the minimum wage could lift a family of three out of poverty. Had the minimum wage back then been indexed to inflation, it would be $10.86 per hour today, compared to the current federal minimum wage of $7.25 per hour. Raising the minimum wage to $10.10 per hour and indexing it to inflation—as President Barack Obama and several members of Congress have called for—would lift more than 4 million Americans out of poverty. Nearly one in five children would see their parent get a raise. Recent action taken by cities and states—such as Seattle, Washington; California; Connecticut; and New Jersey—shows that boosting the minimum wage reduces poverty and increases wages.
3. Increase the Earned Income Tax Credit for childless workers
One of our nation’s most effective anti-poverty tools, the Earned Income Tax Credit, or EITC, helped more than 6.5 million Americans—including 3.3 million children—avoid poverty in 2012. It’s also an investment that pays long-term dividends. Children who receive the EITC are more likely to graduate high school and to have higher earnings in adulthood. Yet childless workers largely miss out on the benefit, as the maximum EITC for these workers is less than one-tenth that awarded to workers with two children.
4. Support pay equity
With female full-time workers earning just 78 cents for every $1 earned by men, action must be taken to ensure equal pay for equal work. Closing the gender wage gap would cut poverty in half for working women and their families and add nearly half a trillion dollars to the nation’s gross domestic product. Passing the Paycheck Fairness Act to hold employers accountable for discriminatory salary practices would be a key first step.
5. Provide paid leave and paid sick days
The United States is the only developed country in the world without paid family and medical leave and paid sick days, making it very difficult for millions of American families to balance work and family without having to sacrifice needed income. Paid leave is an important anti-poverty policy, as having a child is one of the leading causes of economic hardship. Additionally, nearly 4 in 10 private-sector workers—and 7 in 10 low-wage workers—do not have a single paid sick day, putting them in the impossible position of having to forgo needed income, or even their job, in order to care for a sick child. The Family and Medical Insurance Leave Act, or FAMILY Act, would provide paid leave protection to workers who need to take time off due to their own illness, the illness of a family member, or the birth of a child. And the Healthy Families Act would enable workers to earn up to seven job-protected sick days per year.
6. Establish work schedules that work
Low-wage and hourly jobs increasingly come with unpredictable and constantly shifting work schedules, which means workers struggle even more to balance erratic work hours with caring for their families. Ever-changing work schedules make accessing child care even more difficult than it already is and leave workers uncertain about their monthly income. Furthermore, things many of us take for granted—such as scheduling a doctor’s appointment or a parent-teacher conference at school—become herculean tasks. The Schedules That Work Act would require two weeks’ advance notice of worker schedules, which would allow employees to request needed schedule changes. It would also protect them from retaliation for making such requests—and provide guaranteed pay for cancelled or shortened shifts. These are all important first steps to make balancing work and family possible.
7. Invest in affordable, high-quality child care and early education
The lack of affordable, high-quality child care serves as a major barrier to reaching the middle class. In fact, one year of child care for an infant costs more than one year of tuition at most states’ four-year public colleges. On average, poor families who pay out of pocket for child care spend one-third of their incomes just to be able to work. Furthermore, federal child care assistance reaches only one in six eligible children.
Boosting investments in Head Start and the Child Care and Development Block Grant, as well as passing the Strong Start for America’s Children Act—which would invest in preschool, high-quality child care for infants and toddlers, and home-visiting services for pregnant women and mothers with infants—will help more struggling families obtain the child care they need in order to work and improve the future economic mobility of America’s children.
8. Expand Medicaid
Since it was signed into law in 2010, the Affordable Care Act has expanded access to high-quality, affordable health coverage for millions of Americans. However, 23 states continue to refuse to expand their Medicaid programs to cover adults up to 138 percent of the federal poverty level—making the lives of many families on the brink much harder. Expanding Medicaid would mean more than just access to health care—it would free up limited household income for other basic needs such as paying rent and putting food on the table. Having health coverage is also an important buffer against the economic consequences of illness and injury; unpaid medical bills are the leading cause of bankruptcy. Studies link Medicaid coverage not only to improved health, improved access to health care services, and lower mortality rates, but also to reduced financial strain.
I0.RAPID POPULATION GROWTH THREATENING THE ECONOMIC PROGRESS OF DEVELOPING NATIONS? DO LARGE FAMILIES MAKE ECONOMIC SENSE IN AN ENVIRONMENT OF WIDESPREAD POVERTY AND FINANCIAL INSECURITY?
Rapid population growth is one of the major contributing factors to the poverty and under-development of Third World countries–especially African countries, which boast the highest population growth rates in the world. Several factors are responsible for the rapid growth: a drop in mortality rates, a young population, improved standards of living, and attitudes and practices which favor high fertility. Africans view large families as an economic asset and as a symbol of worth and honor, and parents see it as security during old age. The ideal family size in Africa is 5 to 7 children. Because of its complex causes, curbing the rapid growth is not easy. In addition to strategic difficulties, population policies usually meet opposition, often from religious groups. So in order to gain acceptance, population programs need to be integrated with ongoing community development programs. Even though it often engenders opposition, family planning is more crucial then ever, as the rapid population growth continues to create an explosive situation. Rapid growth has led to uncontrolled urbanization, which has produced overcrowding, destitution, crime, pollution, and political turmoil. Rapid growth has outstripped increases in food production, and population pressure has led to the overuse of arable land and its destruction. Rapid growth has also hampered economic development and caused massive unemployment. 45% of Kenya’s labor force is unemployed. Ultimately, rapid growth has undermined the quality of life of people. Society’s responsibility extends beyond simply ensuring the survival of the population. Society must strive to provide people with a good life–one with dignity.
b. Rapid population growth stretches both national and family budgets thin with the increasing numbers of children to be fed and educated and workers to be provided with jobs. Slower per capita income growth, lack of progress in reducing income inequality, and more poverty are the probable consequences. Many characteristics of poverty can cause high fertility — high infant mortality, lack of education for women in particular, too little family income to invest in children, inequitable shares in national income, and the inaccessibility of family planning. Experience in China, Indonesia, Taiwan, Colombia, Korea, Sri Lanka, Cuba and Costa Rica demonstrate that birthrates can decline rapidly in low income groups and countries when basic health care, education, and low-cost or free family planning services are made widely available.
11.WHY IS THERE SO MUCH UNEMPLOYMENT AND UNDEREMPLOYMENT IN DEVELOPING WORLD ESPECIALLY IN THE CRISIS AND WHY DO PEOPLE CONTINUE TO MIGRATE TO THE CITIFROM RURAL AREA EVEN WHEN THEIR CHANCES OF FINDING CONVENTIONAL JOB VERY SLIM.
causes of unemployment on developing countries
1. Lack of the Stock of Physical Capital:
The major cause of unemployment and underemployment in underdeveloped countries like India is the deficiency of the stock of capitaI in relation to the needs of the growing labour force. In the modern world, man by himself can hardly produce anything. Even the primitive man needed some elementary tools like the bow and arrow to engage in hunting for the earning of his livelihood.
2. Use of Capital Intensive Techniques:
An important factor responsible for slow growth of employment has been the use of capital-intensive techniques of production, even in consumer goods indpstries where alternative labour-intensive techniques are available. Even before 1991, under the industrial policy resolution 1956, the development of consumer goods industries were left open for the private sector.
3. Inequitable Distribution of Land:
Another cause of unemployment prevailing in the developing countries like India is inequitable distribution of land so that many agricultural households have no adequate access to land which is an important asset for agricultural production and employment.
4. Rigid Protective Labour Legislation:
Another reason for the slow growth of employment in the organised sector has been the existence of unduly rigid protective labour legislation which makes it very difficult to retrench a worker who has been employed for 240 days. Labour-legislation is so much rigid that it is even difficult to close down the unit and quit the industry. Thus, this excessively protective labour-legislation induces private entrepreneurs to prefer the maximum use of capital in place of labour.
5. Neglect of the Role of Agriculture in Employment Generation:
An important factor responsible for slow growth of employment opportunities is the neglect of agriculture for generating employment opportunities. The general perception, as existed in the first three five year plans in India (1951-65) as well as in the theoretical models of growth for dualistic economies such as Lewis “Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labour” was that agriculture already contained surplus labour and it was required to withdraw this surplus labour from agriculture and employ them in the modern industrial sector. By the mid-sixties it was realised that not to speak of employing new entrains to the labour force year after year, the modern industrial sector could not absorb productivity even a fraction of the then existing unemployed persons in the foreseeable feature.

6. Lack of Infrastructure:

We have explained above lack of physical capital with which labour is equipped for productive employment as the cause of unemployment prevailing in the developing countries like India. By capital we generally mean machines, plant & equipment, factory buildings etc. But a similar factor responsible for huge unemployment prevailing in these countries is lack of infrastructure such as roads, power, telecommunications, highways, irrigation facilities in agriculture. Inadequate availability of infrastructure is a great obstacle for the generation of opportunities for productive employment.
There are many factors that cause underemployment in an economy.
1. Business cycle
One of the main reasons for underemployment is the business cycle the economy currently operates in. If the economy is currently in a recession or economic depression, it is unlikely that organizations will be hiring for many full-time positions.
2. Supply and demand
Underemployment also occurs when the supply of workers is greater than its demand. A few reasons can be an increase in population growth or a decrease in the demand for a product.When certain industries no longer need workers, people with the skills that match that industry may be forced to accept low-income jobs that don’t fully utilize their skills. For example, the decline of the coal industry has forced many former mining employees to look for work in other industries.
3. Technological changes
Sometimes technology takes the job of a worker who would have previously been employed in a position that has since become automated. For example, vending machines have taken the jobs of some cafeteria workers and cashiers, and ATMs have replaced some bank tellers.
. Why people migrate from rural areas to cities
People usually move from rural area to an urban area for economic or employment opportunities, but the specific causes can be categorized as either “push” or “pull” factors. Push factors are what make people move away from a rural area, like a lack of jobs or social opportunities. Pull factors are reasons why people want to come to an urban area, such as better job opportunities or easier access to amenities like education and healthcare.
12.WEAITHIER SOCIETIES ARE ALSO HEAITHIER ONES BECAUSE THEY HAVE MORE RESOURCES FOR IMPROVING NUTRITION AND HEAITH CARE. BUT DOES BETTER HEALTH ALSO HELP SPUR SUCCESSFUL DEVELOPMENT.
Ensuring the health and well-being of all is essential to poverty eradication efforts and achieving sustainable development, contributing to economic growth and prosperous communities. Health is also an inalienable human right according to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, as good health allows people to reach their full potential, children to be better able to learn, workers to be more productive and parents to care for their children better.
It is also a key indicator of a country’s progress: a nation with a healthy population is more likely to experience sustained growth. Good health is also essential for the stability of entire regions, as pandemics, which transcend borders, can have severe social and economic impacts on families and communities, and can put increased pressure on health systems.
Although global health has improved significantly in recent decades, this benefit has not been shared evenly within and among nations. Several hundred million people across the globe continue to go without basic health services, especially in rural areas and in the most impoverished communities. More than six million children die each year and nearly 300,000 women die in pregnancy or childbirth, many from preventable causes.
13.WHAT IS THE IMPACT OF POOR PUBLIC HEALTH ON THE PROSPECT FOR DEVELOPMENT AND WHAT IS NEEDED TO ADDRESS THE PROBLEM
Disease and poor health represent a great burden to affected individuals. Whilst
difficult to quantify, the welfare losses to the individual of being severely ill can be
significant, particularly in those developing regions with limited social security
provision and health care. Individuals suffering from illness may be weak, unable to
work or study and generally unable to provide for children and other dependants. At a
more aggregated level, however, it seems likely that a high disease burden may have
an adverse impact on a country’s productivity, growth and, ultimately, economic development.
What is needed to address the problem
(1) Innovation to develop the evidence base for actio.
(2) a technical package of a limited number of high-priority, evidence-based interventions that together will have a major impact.
(3) effective performance management, especially through rigorous, real-time monitoring, evaluation, and program improvement.
(4) partnerships and coalitions with public- and private-sector organizations.
(5) communication of accurate and timely information to the health care community, decision makers, and the public to effect behavior change and engage civil society.
(6) political commitment to obtain resources and support for effective action.
Programs including smallpox eradication, tuberculosis control, tobacco control, polio eradication, and others have made progress by addressing these 6 areas.
WHEREAS MANY PUBLIC health programs do not achieve their potential impact, other programs succeed in improving health outcomes drastically. Limited and unstable funding, lack of automatic means to track and improve performance, workforce limitations, and insufficient political commitment can all cause public health programs to fail. Implementation can succeed and be sustained if organizations and coalitions effectively address 6 key areas: innovation, a rigorously established technical package, management, partnerships, communication, and political commitment.

Name; Owoh Chiamaka Philia
Reg no: 2019/247552 (2/3)
Department: Education/Economics
Email address: chiamakaphilia195@gmail.com
Course code Eco 361

Instruction:
Following from the previous questiclearly and convincingly answer the following Questions as the Special Adviser to Mr. President on Development and Employment Generation.

Question:
6. Which are the most influential theories of development, and are they compatible? Is underdevelopment an internally (domestically) or externally (internationally) induced phenomenon?

Answer
Scholars propounded theories concerning development, how it is achieved and how it is impeded. These theories are the:
a. Modernization theory
b. The Dependency theory
c. The Feminist theory.

a. MODERNIZATION THEORY:
The modernization theory elaborates on two main categories of societies in world, namely the traditional and modern societies. Theorists argue that the traditional societies are entangled by norms, beliefs and values which are hindering their development process. Thereforethey must adapt the modern
style of living, thus concentrate on accumulation of capital and industrialization. In essence, this theory seeks to improve the standard of living of inferior societies, that is,improves the economic growth of supposed traditional societies to acquire basic and secondary necessities of life, by introducing modern technology and economic strategy to the third world. Modernization theorist, Rostow, also proposed swift machineries of transition for traditional societies to develop; these are preparation to take-off, take-off, drive to maturity and the period of mass consumption. These transitional path processes put traditional societies on the development path. Again, the theory succeeds in the idea that the norms, values and beliefs of a society can affect the social change of that society.
Despite the advantages attributed to the theory, it has weaknesses which must be addressed. Firstly, the theory seeks to entail only the economic and concrete industrial growth of the third world countries. The theory lacks Amartya’s view of development, which states that “development can be seen as the process of expanding the freedoms that people enjoy” (Sen,1999). To Sen, development entails freedom, liberty, and self esteem of humanity which areneglected by the theory.Secondly, the modernization theory posited that the third world countries must admit the development processes of the modern countries. It fails to recognize the fact that one system cannot be adopted by all countries due to the diverse historical and cultural background of the countries.Lastly, Wallerstien pointed out that the theory creates dependency and exploitation of the third world countries. The theory neglects the social and cultural structure of the third world countries and imposes on the poor, ethnocentric processes to develop.

b. THE DEPENDENCY THEORY:
The dependency theory on the other hand opposes the modernization theory. Its main argument is that, the persistent increment in industrialization in the developed countries rather equally subject poor countries to underdevelopment as a result of the economic surplus of the poor countries being exploited by developed countries.It was a great analysis done by Frank A. Gunder by being able to debunk the weak, non historical and ethnocentric issues propounded by the modernization theory (Webster 1984).Also, Gunder succeeded in pointing out the economic inequalities among the developed and the developing countries, as well as the rampant internal inequalities in the various periphery countries and the exploitation of economic surplus developing countries during colonialism. Again, the theory posits an essence emphasis on the fact that development is not mainly based on the cultural values but rather, the economic and social structures and procedures.Dependency theory incurs some weaknesses. Frank failed to exhibit the specific and key dependency of the less developed countries on the metropolis, he merely stated that poor countries depend on rich countries with no specific clarification. The theory downplays internal development. It promotes the idea that indigenous industries cannot develop by it productivity which is not true. Moreover, the theory refuses to point out how the developed countries get access to the economic surplus of the third world countries.
c. THE FEMINIST THEORY:
The feminist theory of development has its main argument being that, women have a great influence in development therefore must be empowered to partake in decision making and its implementation. This theory plays much role in the building of women capacity and capabilities as development is concerned. Also feminists were able to bring awareness of gender inequalities among societies and engaged in massive activities to emancipate women. Feminists succeeded in propounding theories namely, Women in Development (WID) and Woman and development (WAD) to promote equity.Despite feminists’ achievement on the theory, they seemed to address the interest of females instead of addressing issues concerned with gender as a whole. This was criticized by the Gender and development theory. Also, upon all the activities and struggle to attain a high standard of living for women, there are still high inequalities among our social world unaddressed. The feminist theory failed to point out the actual actions and procedures which must be taken by the society and men to empower women in development process but just emphasized on why women must be part and neglected the “how”.

7. What constraints most hold back accelerated growth, depending on local conditions?
Answer:
SOCIAL OBSTACLES
Following are the important social obstacles in the way of economic development :

1. Joint Family System :-
In many countries like India and Pakistan this system is still available. All the members of the family live together. Few of them work hard while the others do nothing, except quarreling with one another. So due to this reason national product reduces.

2. Literacy :-
The literacy rate is very low in the under developed countries. It reduces the rate of economic growth. In Indian and Pakistan…

8. How can improvements in the role and status of women have an especially beneficial impact on development prospects?
Answer:
Economic growth did not necessarily ensure gender equality, but it could only be sustained if matched by advances in the status of women, the representative of Singapore said this morning. He was addressing the Third Committee (Social, Humanitarian and Cultural), as it continued its general debate on the advancement of women and the implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action. He said economic globalization increased direct foreign investment and expanded job opportunities, thus allowing more women to join the workforce and reach decision-making positions. However, the opportunities for income and employment expansion must be seized to promote sustainable development and gender equality.
Women’s empowerment has become a significant topic of discussion in development and economics. Economic empowerment allows women to control and benefit from resources, assets, and income. It also aids the ability to manage risk and improve women’s well-being. It can result in approaches to support trivialized genders in a particular political or social context. While often interchangeably used, the more comprehensive concept of gender empowerment concerns people of any gender, stressing the distinction between biological and gender as a role. Women empowerment helps in boosting the status of women through literacy, education, training and awareness creation. Furthermore, women’s empowerment refers to women’s ability to make strategic life choices which had been previously denied them.

Nations, businesses, communities and groups may benefit from the implementation of programs and policies that adopt the notion of female empowerment. Empowerment of women enhances the quality and the quantity of human resources available for development. Empowerment is one of the main procedural concerns when addressing human rights and development.

9. What are the causes of extreme poverty, and what policies have been most effective for improving the lives of the poorest of the poor?
Answer:

Following are the main causes of poverty:

1. Increase rate of rising population:
In the last 45 years, the population has increased at the whopping rate of 2.2% per annum. An average of approx. 17 million people are added every year to the population which raises the demand for consumption goods considerably.

2. Less productivity in agriculture:
In agriculture, the productivity level is very low due to subdivided and fragmented holdings, lack of capital, use of traditional methods of cultivation, illiteracy etc. The very reason for poverty in the country is this factor only.

3. Less utilization of resources:
Underemployment and veiled unemployment of human resources and less utilization of resources have resulted in low production in the agricultural sector. This brought a downfall in their standard of living.

4. A short rate of economic development:
In India, the rate of economic development is very low what is required for a good level. Therefore, there persists a gap between the level of availability and requirements of goods and services. The net result is poverty.

5. Increasing price rise:
Poor is becoming poorer because of continuous and steep price rise. It has benefited a few people in the society and the persons in lower income group find it difficult to get their minimum needs.

6. Unemployment:
One of the main causes of poverty is the continuous expanding army of unemployed in our country. The job seeker is increasing in number at a higher rate than the expansion in employment opportunities.

7. Shortage of capital and able entrepreneurship:
The much-required capital and sustainable entrepreneurship play a very important role in accelerating the growth. But these are in short supply making it difficult to increase production significantly.

8. Social factors:
Our country’s social set up is very much backward with the rest of the world and not at all beneficial for faster development. The caste system, inheritance law, rigid traditions and customs are putting hindrances in the way of faster development and have aggravated the problem of poverty.

9. Political factors:
We all know that the East India Company started lopsided development in India and had reduced our economy to a colonial state. They exploited the natural resources to suit their interests and weaken the industrial base of Indian economy. Hence, the planning was of immense failure to handle the problems of poverty and unemployment.

10. Unequal distribution of income:
If you simply increase the production or do a checking on population cannot help poverty in our country. We need to understand that inequality in the distribution of income and concentration of wealth should be checked. The government can reduce inequality of income and check the concentration of wealth by pursuing suitable monetary and price policies.

11. The problem of distribution:
The distribution channel should be robust in order to remove poverty. Mass consumption of goods and food grains etc. should be distributed first among the poor population. Present public distribution system must be re-organised and extended to rural and semi-urban areas of the country.

12. Regional poverty:
India is divided by the inappropriate proportion of poor in some states, like Nagaland, Orissa, Bihar, Nagaland, etc. is greater than the other states. The administration should offer special amenities and discounts to attract private capital investment to backward regions.

13. Provision for minimum requirements of the poor:
The government should take care of the minimum requirements, like drinking water, primary medical care, and primary education etc. of the poor.

Policies for improving life’s of the poorest/poor include:

1. Job creation:
The best pathway out of poverty is a well-paying job. To get back to prerecession employment levels, we must create 5.6 million new jobs. At the current pace, however, we will not get there until July 2018. To kick-start job growth, the federal government should invest in job-creation strategies such as rebuilding our infrastructure; developing renewable energy sources; renovating abandoned housing; and making other common-sense investments that create jobs, revitalize neighborhoods, and boost our national economy. We should also build on proven models of subsidized employment to help the long-term unemployed and other disadvantaged workers re-enter the labor force.
In addition, the extension of federal unemployment insurance would have created 200,000 new jobs in 2014, according to the Congressional Budget Office. Indeed, every $1 in benefits that flows to jobless workers yields more than $1.50 in economic activity. Unfortunately, Congress failed to extend federal unemployment insurance at the end of 2013, leaving 1.3 million Americans and their families without this vital economic lifeline.

2. Raise the minimum wage:
In the late 1960s, a full-time worker earning the minimum wage could lift a family of three out of poverty. Had the minimum wage back then been indexed to inflation, it would be $10.86 per hour today, compared to the current federal minimum wage of $7.25 per hour. Raising the minimum wage to $10.10 per hour and indexing it to inflation—as President Barack Obama and several members of Congress have called for—would lift more than 4 million Americans out of poverty. Nearly one in five children would see their parent get a raise. Recent action taken by cities and states—such as Seattle, Washington; California; Connecticut; and New Jersey—shows that boosting the minimum wage reduces poverty and increases wages.

3. Increase the Earned Income Tax Credit for childless workers:
One of our nation’s most effective anti-poverty tools, the Earned Income Tax Credit, or EITC, helped more than 6.5 million Americans—including 3.3 million children—avoid poverty in 2012. It’s also an investment that pays long-term dividends. Children who receive the EITC are more likely to graduate high school and to have higher earnings in adulthood. Yet childless workers largely miss out on the benefit, as the maximum EITC for these workers is less than one-tenth that awarded to workers with two children.

President Obama and policymakers across the political spectrum have called for boosting the EITC in order to right this wrong. Importantly, this policy change should be combined with a hike in the minimum wage; one is not a substitute for the other.

4. Support pay equity:
With female full-time workers earning just 78 cents for every $1 earned by men, action must be taken to ensure equal pay for equal work. Closing the gender wage gap would cut poverty in half for working women and their families and add nearly half a trillion dollars to the nation’s gross domestic product. Passing the Paycheck Fairness Act to hold employers accountable for discriminatory salary practices would be a key first step.

5. Provide paid leave and paid sick days:
The United States is the only developed country in the world without paid family and medical leave and paid sick days, making it very difficult for millions of American families to balance work and family without having to sacrifice needed income. Paid leave is an important anti-poverty policy, as having a child is one of the leading causes of economic hardship. Additionally, nearly 4 in 10 private-sector workers—and 7 in 10 low-wage workers—do not have a single paid sick day, putting them in the impossible position of having to forgo needed income, or even their job, in order to care for a sick child. The Family and Medical Insurance Leave Act, or FAMILY Act, would provide paid leave protection to workers who need to take time off due to their own illness, the illness of a family member, or the birth of a child. And the Healthy Families Act would enable workers to earn up to seven job-protected sick days per year.

6. Establish work schedules that work:
Low-wage and hourly jobs increasingly come with unpredictable and constantly shifting work schedules, which means workers struggle even more to balance erratic work hours with caring for their families. Ever-changing work schedules make accessing child care even more difficult than it already is and leave workers uncertain about their monthly income. Furthermore, things many of us take for granted—such as scheduling a doctor’s appointment or a parent-teacher conference at school—become herculean tasks. The Schedules That Work Act would require two weeks’ advance notice of worker schedules, which would allow employees to request needed schedule changes. It would also protect them from retaliation for making such requests—and provide guaranteed pay for cancelled or shortened shifts. These are all important first steps to make balancing work and family possible.

7. Invest in affordable, high-quality child care and early education:
The lack of affordable, high-quality child care serves as a major barrier to reaching the middle class. In fact, one year of child care for an infant costs more than one year of tuition at most states’ four-year public colleges. On average, poor families who pay out of pocket for child care spend one-third of their incomes just to be able to work. Furthermore, federal child care assistance reaches only one in six eligible children.
Boosting investments in Head Start and the Child Care and Development Block Grant, as well as passing the Strong Start for America’s Children Act—which would invest in preschool, high-quality child care for infants and toddlers, and home-visiting services for pregnant women and mothers with infants—will help more struggling families obtain the child care they need in order to work and improve the future economic mobility of America’s children.

8. Expand Medicaid:
Since it was signed into law in 2010, the Affordable Care Act has expanded access to high-quality, affordable health coverage for millions of Americans. However, 23 states continue to refuse to expand their Medicaid programs to cover adults up to 138 percent of the federal poverty level—making the lives of many families on the brink much harder. Expanding Medicaid would mean more than just access to health care—it would free up limited household income for other basic needs such as paying rent and putting food on the table. Having health coverage is also an important buffer against the economic consequences of illness and injury; unpaid medical bills are the leading cause of bankruptcy. Studies link Medicaid coverage not only to improved health, improved access to health care services, and lower mortality rates, but also to reduced financial strain.

9. Reform the criminal justice system and enact policies that support successful re-entry:
The United States incarcerates more of its citizens than any other country in the world. Today, more than 1.5 million Americans are behind bars in state and federal prisons, a figure that has increased fivefold since 1980. The impact on communities of color is particularly staggering: One in four African American children who grew up during this era of mass incarceration have had a parent incarcerated.
Mass incarceration is a key driver of poverty. When a parent is incarcerated, his or her family must find a way to make ends meet without a necessary source of income Additionally, even a minor criminal record comes with significant collateral consequences that can serve as lifelong barriers to climbing out of poverty. For example, people with criminal records face substantial barriers to employment, housing, education, public assistance, and building good credit. More than 90 percent of employers now use background checks in hiring, and even an arrest without a conviction can prevent an individual from getting a job. The “one strike and you’re out” policy used by public housing authorities makes it difficult if not impossible for individuals with even decades-old criminal records to obtain housing, which can stand in the way of family reunification. Furthermore, a lifetime ban—for individuals with felony drug convictions—on receiving certain types of public assistance persists in more than half of U.S. states, making subsistence even more difficult for individuals seeking to regain their footing, and their families.

In addition to common-sense sentencing reform to ensure that we no longer fill our nation’s prisons with nonviolent, low-level offenders, policymakers should explore alternatives to incarceration, such as diversion programs for individuals with mental health and substance abuse challenges. We must also remove barriers to employment, housing, education, and public assistance. A decades-old criminal record should not consign an individual to a life of poverty.

10. Rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations? Do large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity?

Answer:

Rapid population growth, also know as Exponential growth Population explosion refers to the rapid and dramatic rise in world population that has occurred over the last few hundred years. Between 1959 and 2000, the world’s population increased from 2.5 billion to 6.1 billion people.
In Nigeria, we have the largest population in Africa, and it is growing at the rate of 3.2% a year. The U.S. Census Bureau says that at that rate, there will be an estimated 402 million people in Nigeria in 2050. The major triggers for population increase include early marriages, high birth rates and lack of family planning access.
Rapid growth has outstripped increases in food production, and population pressure has led to the overuse of arable land and its destruction. Rapid growth has also hampered economic development and caused massive unemployment.

11. Why is there so much unemployment and underemployment in the developing world, especially in the cities, and why do people continue to migrate to the cities from rural areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job are very slim?

First, what is Unemployment:
Unemployment is a term referring to individuals who are employable and actively seeking a job but are unable to find a job. … Usually measured by the unemployment rate, which is dividing the number of unemployed people by the total number of people in the workforce, unemployment serves as one of the indicators.

While Underemployment:
Underemployment is a measure of employment and labor utilization in the economy that looks at how well the labor force is being used in terms of skills, experience, and availability to work. It refers to a situation in which individuals are forced to work in low-paying or low-skill jobs.

The Nature and Causes of Unemployment in Developing Countries include
1. Lack of the Stock of Physical Capital:

The major cause of unemployment and underemployment in underdeveloped countries like India is the deficiency of the stock of capitaI in relation to the needs of the growing labour force. In the modern world, man by himself can hardly produce anything. Even the primitive man needed some elementary tools like the bow and arrow to engage in hunting for the earning of his livelihood.

With the growth of technology and specialisation, he needs much more capital with which to engage in the productive activity. If he is an agriculturist, he needs a piece of land and also a plough, a pair of oxen, seeds and some foodgrains and other necessities of life to sustain himself during the period of sowing to the reaping of the harvest. In the industrial sector, he needs factories to work in and machines to work with. All these aids to production belong to the community’s stock of capital.

Now, if the working force grows faster than the stock of capital of a country, the entire addition of labour force cannot be absorbed in productive employment because not enough instruments of production would be there to employ them. The resulting unemployment is known as the long- term or chronic unemployment.

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A nation’s stock of capital can be enlarged by increased investment which in the absence of any unutilised resources, requires additional saving on the part of the community. The concern of the classical economists was to ensure that the rate of capital formation was kept sufficiently high so that employment opportunities were successively enlarged to absorb the additions to the working force of a country as a result of population growth.

This is also the problem that the developing countries like India are facing today. In recent times, the labour force in India has been growing at more than 2 per cent per year, yet our rate of investment expressed as a percentage of our stock of capital has not been growing at a fast enough rate so as to keep pace with the growth of population. As a result, the country’s ability to offer productive employment to the new entrants in the labour market has been severely limited.

This manifests itself in two things: first, the prevalence of large-scale open unemployment in the urban areas as evidenced by the statistics of employment exchanges; second, it manifests itself in the form of open unemployment in the rural areas as well as disguised unemployment in agriculture.

2. Use of Capital Intensive Techniques:

An important factor responsible for slow growth of employment has been the use of capital-intensive techniques of production, even in consumer goods indpstries where alternative labour-intensive techniques are available. Even before 1991, under the industrial policy resolution 1956, the development of consumer goods industries were left open for the private sector.

However, private sector prefers to invest in highly capital-intensive plants and equipment on the basis of technology developed in labour- scarce western countries. It is argued by them the alternative labour-intensive techniques have low productivity and low-surplus-generating capacity. However, the important reason for the use of capital-intensive techniques has been the availability of cheap capital.

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Even firms in modern small industry sector which were expected to generate large employment opportunities have also tended to use capital-intensive techniques of production. Thus, Prof. J.C. Sandesara states, “the availability of cheap capital has tended to encourage the modern small-scale industries sector to over-capitalize and use more capital-intensive methods of production and thus reduce employment potential”.

In agriculture, reckless mechanisation of various agricultural operations despite the existence of surplus labour has reduced the employment-augmenting effect of new high-yielding technology involving the use of HYV seeds, fertilisers and pesticides. This has prevented the generation of enough employment opportunities in rural areas.

Now, a pertinent question is why capital-intensive techniques are used in industries despite the condition of labour-abundance in the economy. First reason is the relatively low price of capital, relatively low price of capital has caused by
(a) lower rate of interest,
(b) liberal depreciation allowance on capital investment permitted in the taxation system of the country,
(c) relatively cheap capital equipment imported from abroad. Second, higher wages of labour in the organised sector relative to their productivity under pressure from trade unions. Thirdly, rigid labour laws also discourage the employment of labour. It is difficult to retrench labour even when it is not required in case an industrial unit becomes sick and proposes to close down or exit. Fourthly, Research and Development (R & D) activity has not been adequately directed to discover and identify labour-intensive appropriate techniques to be used in industries which, though labour-intensive, have also reasonably good productivity.

3. Inequitable Distribution of Land:
Another cause of unemployment prevailing in the developing countries like India is inequitable distribution of land so that many agricultural households have no adequate access to land which is an important asset for agricultural production and employment.

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Sub-division of land holdings under the pressure of rapid population growth since 1951 has further reduced access to land for several agricultural households. As a result many persons who were self-employed in agriculture have become landless agricultural labourers who suffer from acute unemployment and under-employment.

4. Rigid Protective Labour Legislation:
Another reason for the slow growth of employment in the organised sector has been the existence of unduly rigid protective labour legislation which makes it very difficult to retrench a worker who has been employed for 240 days. Labour-legislation is so much rigid that it is even difficult to close down the unit and quit the industry. Thus, this excessively protective labour-legislation induces private entrepreneurs to prefer the maximum use of capital in place of labour.

5. Neglect of the Role of Agriculture in Employment Generation:
An important factor responsible for slow growth of employment opportunities is the neglect of agriculture for generating employment opportunities. The general perception, as existed in the first three five year plans in India (1951-65) as well as in the theoretical models of growth for dualistic economies such as Lewis “Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labour” was that agriculture already contained surplus labour and it was required to withdraw this surplus labour from agriculture and employ them in the modern industrial sector. By the mid-sixties it was realised that not to speak of employing new entrains to the labour force year after year, the modern industrial sector could not absorb productivity even a fraction of the then existing unemployed persons in the foreseeable feature.

Agriculture though containing surplus labour can generate employment opportunities if proper strategy for its development is adopted. For instance, the empirical evidence shows that on an irrigated hectare of land the number of man-hours employed is almost twice that on the unirrigated hectare. Irrigation requires more labour input for watering the fields, but also since output per hectare on irrigated land is much higher, more labour is used for harvesting and threshing the crop. Besides, irrigation makes the adoption of double cropping possible which greatly raises the employment potential of agriculture.

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It is worth noting that new agricultural technology, commonly called green revolution technology, involving the use of HYV (High Yielding Varieties) seeds, greater use of fertilisers and pesticides along with water is highly labour absorptive. What is equally important, this new green revolution technology is size-neutral, that is, it can be equally well adopted by small farmers. Further, HYV seeds are of short-duration type, that is, they mature in a short time so that they make multiple cropping more feasible.
The use of double or multiple cropping greatly enhances the opportunities of employment generation in agriculture. The experience of Punjab, Haryana and Western UP is a shining example of large employment generation in agriculture. What is needed for the generation of large employment opportunities in agriculture, the new green revolution technology should be widely diffused and adopted in the backward and lagging agricultural regions in India.

6. Lack of Infrastructure:
We have explained above lack of physical capital with which labour is equipped for productive employment as the cause of unemployment prevailing in the developing countries like India. By capital we generally mean machines, plant & equipment, factory buildings etc. But a similar factor responsible for huge unemployment prevailing in these countries is lack of infrastructure such as roads, power, telecommunications, highways, irrigation facilities in agriculture. Inadequate availability of infrastructure is a great obstacle for the generation of opportunities for productive employment.
It follows from above that unemployment and under-employment prevailing in India and other developing countries is not cyclical Keynesian type of unemployment caused by decline in aggregate demand. Unemployment and under-employment in India are caused by more basic structural factors such as lack of capital, use of capital-intensive technologies, lack of access to land for agricultural household, lack of infrastructure, racial growth of population resulting in large annual increments in labour force year after year. Unemployment in India, as in other developing countries, manifests itself in both open unemployment and under-employment.

12. Wealthier societies are also healthier ones because they have more resources for improving nutrition and health care. But does better health also help spur successful development?

13. What is the impact of poor public health on the prospects for development, and what is needed to address these problems?
Individuals suffering from illness may be weak, unable to work or study and generally unable to provide for children and other dependants. At a more aggregated level, however, it seems likely that a high disease burden may have an adverse impact on a country’s productivity, growth and, ultimately, economic development
At a societal level, poor population health is associated with lower savings rates, lower rates of return on capital, and lower levels of domestic and foreign investment; all of these factors can and do contribute to reductions in economic growth (Ruger et al., 2006).

Dept:Economics.Name:Akachukwu Christian Nonso
christiannonso111@gmail.com

(6)which are the most influential theories of development and are compatible? is underdevelopment an internally / externally induced phenomenon?
(Ans)
(a)
Linear stage of growth model and structuralism serves the most influential theories they depict on how to restructure the economy in order to develop the economy and also ensure industrialization,these serve why they are compatible.
(b) During the 1970s, the international dependency theories viewed developing countries as beset by institutional, political and economical rigidities. Developing countries were caught up in a dependence and dominance relationship with developed nations.
According to the neoclassical dependency theories, It says that underdevelopment is due to the historical evolution of a highly unequal international capitalist system of rich country-poor country relationships. Developed nations are intentionally exploitative or unintentionally neglectful towards developing countries.
. Thus ,Underdevelopment is thus externally induced. Developing countries are destined to be the sweatshops of the rich nations (through their multinationals for example) and depend on developed nations for manufacturing goods that are high-value-added. Many developing countries were forced to become exporters of primary commodities by their colonial masters. Many of these countries still depend on primary commodities after independence.

(7)what constraints must hold back accelerated growth depending on local conditions?
(Ans)
The constraint includes:
(1)inefficiency within the micro-economy.

(2)imbalance in the structure of the economy.

(3)a rapid growing or declining population.

(4) lack of financial and human capital.

(5)poor governance and corruption.

(6)barrier to trade.

(8) how can improvements in the role and status of women have an especially beneficial impact on development prospects?
(Ans)
Women now represent 40% of the global labour force and more than half of the world university students, overall productivity will increase , If their skills and talents are used more fully. For example, if women farmers have the same access as men to productive resources such as land and fertilizers, agricultural outputs in developing countries could increase as much as 2.5 to 4%

(9)what are the causes of extreme poverty and what policies have been most effective for improving the lives of the poorest of the poor?
(ans)

1. Increase rate of rising population:

In the last 45 years, the population has increased at the whopping rate of 2.2% per annum. An average of approx. 17 million people are added every year to the population which raises the demand for consumption goods considerably.

2. Less productivity in agriculture:

In agriculture, the productivity level is very low due to subdivided and fragmented holdings, lack of capital, use of traditional methods of cultivation, illiteracy etc. The very reason for poverty in the country is this factor only.

3. Less utilization of resources:

Underemployment and veiled unemployment of human resources and less utilization of resources have resulted in low production in the agricultural sector. This brought a downfall in their standard of living.

4. A short rate of economic development:

In India, the rate of economic development is very low what is required for a good level. Therefore, there persists a gap between the level of availability and requirements of goods and services. The net result is poverty.

5. Increasing price rise:

Poor is becoming poorer because of continuous and steep price rise. It has benefited a few people in the society and the persons in lower income group find it difficult to get their minimum needs.

6. Unemployment:

One of the main causes of poverty is the continuous expanding army of unemployed in our country. The job seeker is increasing in number at a higher rate than the expansion in employment opportunities.

7. Shortage of capital and able entrepreneurship:

The much-required capital and sustainable entrepreneurship play a very important role in accelerating the growth. But these are in short supply making it difficult to increase production significantly.

8. Social factors:

Our country’s social set up is very much backward with the rest of the world and not at all beneficial for faster development. The caste system, inheritance law, rigid traditions and customs are putting hindrances in the way of faster development and have aggravated the problem of poverty.

There are various policies that have been initiated to improve the poor which are the following :

(a) encouragement of entrepreneurship in order to make people independent,most government try to encourage it citizens to be self independent ,that is try to encourage them to engage in activities that will make them financially stable, by so doing these tends to reduce the poverty in the nation.

These is one of the reasons why entrepreneurship is being encouraged in secondary and tertiary institution in order to make the population economically productive.

(b) granting of loan:these have served as one of the policies initiated to eradicate poverty, there are a lot of agencies that grant loan to people based on their potential business idea, when they see it as being reasonable, they proceed my granting their clients loan, even banks grant loans to people in order to encourage development of the economy e.g ADB(Agricultural development bank),industrial bank e. t. c are involved in ensuring economic development and these tends to reduce the poverty ratio

(10)rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations? do large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity?

(Ans)
(a) Population growth to me can be seen as a double edged sword capable of improving or deteriorating the
economy depending on the nations capacity of utilizing
these human resources.for instance looking at China they have one of the highest population in the world and they
have been able to utilize these human resource and these tends to be one of the reasons why they are among the developed nations of the world.
on the contrary, using nigeria as a case study, as we
all know Nigeria is a developing nations, the impact of the rapid population growth have not always gone well, these can be accounted for various reasons ,one of which is lack of adequate planning, looking at the economic history of developed nations they made adequate planning on the growing population, they were more focused on the future, if we can adapt to these the economy will improve, their should be provision for
the increasing population such as health &educational facility ,job opportunities and so on.
Rapid population serves as a threat to developing nations when their is no adequate planning, as the population is growing and when a large number of the
population are not involved in economic activity, these can serve as a barrier to development, but in a situation
when most of the Proportion of the population falls within working age these can spur development.
(b) having a large family does not make any economic sense in a period whereby there is widespread
Poverty and financial insecurity because of the costs involved,these have attributed to the fact why most families in developing nations involved in family planning
due to the economic hardship of their country.

(11)why is there so much unemployment and underemployment in the developing world, especially in the cities, and why do people continue to migrate to the cities from rural areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job are very slim?
(Ans)

(a)The major reason for unemployment in developing nations especially in the cities is due to the high number of immigrants coming into the cities, and the job opportunities is not sufficient enough to sustain the increasing number of people in the cities, when these occurs ,unemployment set in ,that is why it is necessary for the government to provide adequate infrastructure in
these cities so as to attract both local and foreign investors because such we encourage development.
(b) people migrate to cities for various reasons, they mostly travel for employment opportunities, but in some cases when the job opportunity is slim there are other reason why they might want to migrate to the cities due to the following reasons :
(I) the social infrastructure available in cities, there are high number of accessible road, hospital, borne hole water, these has a tendency of attracting immigrants who
may not have these in their place of abode,these can be peculiar to people in rural Areas who do not have access to these infrastructures
(ll) the high level of industrialization and commmercialization in urban areas have also contributed
to attracting people to cities, for instance in Nigeria when we look at cities like enugu,onitsha,portharcourt,lagos ,Kano e.t.c due to the level of economic activities occurring in these areas, these has attracted people to these areas.

(12)wealthier societies are also healthier ones because they have more resources for improving nutrition and health care but does better health spur development?
(Ans)

Health and economy might seem to be two different things. But, it doesn’t mean these two most important aspects in a country’s life cannot be optimized. When it comes to a country to optimize its economy, they need also to improve its health condition. People’s health is the main focus for a country to get along with global development. To reach the target of national growth, a country needs to make growing importance of health in the economy as a focus. But, why is health an important aspect for a country to grow?

The Importance of Health for a Nation’s Economy
Although these two aspects are not directly connected, considering health as one of the most important aspects of a nation’s development is crucial. In some cases, health is also a sign of a country’s prosperity and good economic condition. Here are some reasons why health is a vital factor for the economy:

Healthy people are assets for a country. When it comes to a country to start a modern civilization, healthy people will support its development. With some concerning diseases that will be a threat to a country, the growing importance of health in the economy is a crucial thing to consider. Diseases like diarrhea, hepatitis, and others can treat people on a mass scale.
Preventing diseases and illness is way easier than overcoming the problems. The budget for preventing diseases by supplying medicines and vaccines is more affordable than treating the disease. When a disease becomes a national crisis, a country will need to splurge more money for overcoming such a problem. Therefore, good prevention is required for every country.
Healthier people are more productive. To improve a nation’s growth, having healthy people is what it needs for a country to grow. It might take more than medicine to keep the people healthy. But, increasing the people’s health is more important than just considering them as a minor aspect in a country.
When people are healthy, the quality of a nation is also increased. Not only it increases the economy, but also almost all of its quality. As mentioned, people are the assets for a country to grow. Optimizing people’s health is what it takes for keeping people in being productive and healthy.
(13)what is important of poor public health on the prospects for development and what is needed to address these problems?
(Ans)
(a) it lowers the amount of labour supplied, and as such reduce the work force which have a way of affecting the
economy.
(b) Human capital accumulation may also be adversely affected by poor health due to the higher levels of school absenteeism amongst those suffering from illness.
(c) poor health has an impact on foreign and domestic investment, tourism, the internal mobility of labour and Land use. as the WHO(2001) claims, return to investment in agriculture, mining, manufacturing, and tourism as well as investment in major infrastructure projects,are as a result of poor health.
Possible solution to poor public health includes :

(1)ensure access to quality health care services.

(2)reduce rising costs of health care services and ensure efficiency in health care through programmes such as the:

Formal Sector Social Health Insurance Programme (FSSHIP),

Mobile Health,
Voluntary Contributors Social Health Insurance Programme (VCSHIP),
Tertiary Institution Social Health Insurance Programme (TISHIP),
Community Based Social Health Insurance Programme (CBSHIP),
Public Primary Pupils Social Health Insurance Programme (PPPSHIP),
and the provision of health care services for children under 5 years, prison inmates, disabled persons, retirees and the elderly.

ASOGWA RITA CHEKWUBE
2018/SD/37347
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION/ECONOMICS
LEVEL: 3/5

QUESTION 6
Mercantilism: Mercantilism is based on the principle that the world’s wealth was static, and consequently, many nations attempted to accumulate the largest possible share of that wealth by maximizing their exports and by limiting their imports via tariffs. Mercantilism replaced the feudal economic system.
Linear stages of growth model: The linear stages of growth model assumes that economic growth can only be achieved by industrialization. Growth can be restricted by local institutions and social attitudes, especially if these aspects influence the savings rate and investments.
The Structural change theory: Structural change contribution focuses on the models of structural analysis, particularly on the methods and principles that such models adopt; in this context, structural change becomes the underlying dominant theme of the present work. It indicates essentially a qualitative transformation and evolution of the economic systems, usually marked by technological progress and organizational changes. Technological factors, knowledge, institutions are all elements that contribute to the process of structural change.

QUESTION 7
What constraints most hold back accelerated growth, depending on local conditions?
Allocative inefficiency: Opening up the economy to free trade, and privatisation of industry may help promote a more competitive environment, and reduce allocatively inefficiency.When developing economies remain closed to competition, when they are dominated by local monopolies, or when production is in the hands of the state, prices might not reflect the marginal cost of production.
Development constraints: The pace of development can be slowed down, or even reversed, by various factors affecting the economy. Some of these constraints can be dealt with through economic and social policy, while others may be difficult to resolve.
Productive inefficiency: Producers in less developed countries may not be able to produce at the lowest possible average cost. This may be because of the failure to apply technology to production, using obsolete technology, or because of the inability to achieve economies of scale. Opening up the economy to free trade may help reduce this type of inefficiency, and encourage technology transfer.
Lack of real capital: Many developing economies do not have sufficient financial capital to engage in public or private investment

QUESTION 8
Women empowerment is seen as promoting women’s sense of self-worth, their ability to determine their own choices, and their right to influence social change for themselves and others. Female empowerment is often associated with specific phases of the women’s rights movement in history. This movement tends to be split into three waves, the first beginning in the 19th and early 20th century where suffrage was a key feature. Women’s empowerment and promoting women’s rights have emerged as a part of a major global movement and is continuing to break new ground in recent years. But despite a great deal of progress, women and girls continue to face discrimination and violence in every part of the world.
Empowering women is essential to the health and social development of families, communities and countries. They are also able to help fuel sustainable economies and benefit societies and humanity at large. When women are living safe, fulfilled and productive lives, they can reach their full potential. contributing their skills to the workforce and can raise happier and healthier children. They are also four time’s less likely to get married young when they have eight years education, meaning that they and their families are healthier. A key part of this empowerment is through education. Girls who are educated can pursue meaningful work and contribute to their country’s economy later in life. Finally, Empowering girls is the key to economic growth, political stability and social transformation.

QUESTION 9
what are the cause of extreme poverty and what policies have been most effective for improving the lives of the poorest of the poor?
Root causes of poverty includes:
– Government Corruption. Since its founding, government corruption has plagued Nigeria.
– Lack of Economic Infrastructure.
– Poor Access to Education.
– Poor Access to Healthcare.
The effective way of improving the lives of the poorest of the poor:
i. Create and improve access to jobs and income and develop entrepreneurial talent.
ii. Providing all people with access to basic social services including education, health care, adequate food, sanitation, shelter and clean water.
iii. Develop and implement rapid and sustained economic growth policies and programs, in areas such as health, education, nutrition and sanitation, allowing the poor to participate and contribute to the growth.
iv. Remove the barriers to equal access to resources and services by the people.
v. Improve management of water and other natural resources. Most of the rural poor depend on agriculture or other natural resources for their livelihood.
vi. Empower people living in poverty by involving them in the development and implementation of plans and programs to reduce and eradicate poverty. Their involvement ensures that programs reflect those things that are important to them.

QUESTION 10
Rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations? Do large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity?
Rapid growth is a really a serious threat to economic growth. Rapid population growth has serious economic consequences. it limits rate of growth of gross national product by holding down level of savings and capital investments. It encourages inequities in income distribution; it exerts pressure on agricultural production and land; and it creates unemployment problems. Large families are not a very wise path with the rate of poverty in the count. In a situations where the available mouths remain unfed bringing more does not make much sense. Wealthier societies are also healthier ones because they have more resources for improving nutrition and health care.
Health is also an inalienable human right according to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, as good health allows people to reach their full potential, children to be better able to learn, workers to be more productive and parents to care for their children better. Ensuring the health and well-being of all is essential to poverty eradication efforts and achieving sustainable development, contributing to economic growth and prosperous communities. Good health is also essential for the stability of entire regions, as pandemics, which transcend borders, can have severe social and economic impacts on families and communities, and can put increased pressure on health systems. It is also a key indicator of a country’s progress: a nation with a healthy population is more likely to experience sustained growth. When everyone is healthy full productive capability is achieved and therefore the economy will grow and be better.

QUESTION 11
Why is there so much unemployment and underemployment in the developing world, especially in the cities, and why do people continue to migrate to the cities from rural areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job are very slim?
Migration: People usually migrate to the city in search for better jobs even though the chances are slim because there are better pay for the job available in the cities.
Poor approach to Employment Creation: Wrong employment policies of the government contribute immensely to the unemployment crises in Nigeria.
Mismanagement of the Economy: The misuse of the country’s resources has led to crippling economic conditions across the country. The country’s wealth translates to the people’s wealth because a wealthy nation where resources abound will have citizens that can fend for themselves and create jobs for others.
Investment Climate: Failure of government to create an enabling environment for sustainable growth hinders the creation of job opportunities by the private sector.
Poor Infrastructure: Poor infrastructural development in Nigeria impedes business growth. When private sectors do not grow maximally, they cannot provide more jobs.Even with the unfavorable business environments, poor policy structure and framework for implementation, the private sector is struggling to sustain business and create employment opportunities.

QUESTION 12
Wealthier societies are also healthier ones because they have more resources for improving nutrition and health care. But does better health also help spur successful development?
Most Nigerians are flown out of the country when they are facing ill health. For so doing the receiving country would by all means try to improve it health sector to accommodate other foreigners coming to get treated. The issue of health is a vital one, some people are capable of paying for the fares to have a better treatment concerning an health issue and defection in a part of the world. Developing a place means making it better for human habitation. So human would want to be safe and in environment where they dwell in. The government of some western countries has over the years built a good and reliable health system in order to increase the revenue and by so doing development is taking place in the health sector. Successful development lies in the cost or positive decision taken by the government of the country in question.

QUESTION 13
– Investing in education: One of the most important ways to improve health in developing countries is by educating citizens. educating people enables them to obtain safer jobs, increased health literacy, take preventive healthcare measures, avoid risker health behaviors and demand better-quality health services.
– Increasing the economy: Poverty can affect children’s cognitive development, and those living in poverty are over three times more likely to suffer from mental health problems. Most individual long-term conditions are more than twice as common in adults from lower socio-economic groups, and mental health problems are much more prevalent.
– Increasing health benefits for the poor: Poorer countries receive much lower health benefits than richer countries. In developing areas, the poor are subjected to higher risk of contradicting diseases and lower access to healthcare.
– Promoting primary and essential healthcare: A way to improve health in developing countries involves governments providing cost-effective health packages for everyone.

UGOCHUKWU CLEMENT C.
2018/SD/37180
EDUCATION/ECONOMICS

QUESTION 6
The theories include:
Modernization: The process of social change begun by industrialization. Modernization is the process that increases the amount of specialization and differentiation of structure in societies. Modernization is good in that it increases rates of production but bad in that it harms the environment.
Dependency: this theory shows notion that resources flow from a “periphery” of poor and underdeveloped states to a “core” of wealthy states, enriching the latter at the expense of the former.
World-system: World-systems theory is a multidisciplinary approach to world history and social change which emphasizes the world-system as the primary unit of social analysis.
Globalization: is the word used to describe the growing interdependence of the world’s economies, cultures, and populations, brought about by cross-border trade in goods and services, technology, and flows of investment, people, and information.

QUESTION 7
Constraints that hold back accelerated growth are:
Literacy :The literacy rate is very low in the under developed countries. It reduces the rate of economic growth.
Joint Family System: when all the members of the family live together, Few of them work hard while the others do nothing, except quarreling with one another. So due to this reason national product reduces.
Imbalances: Not all sectors of an economy are capable of growth. For some developing economies, too many scarce resources may be allocated to sectors with little growth potential. This is especially the case with the production of agriculture and commodities.
Low capital: In these sectors, there is little opportunity for economic growth because the impact of real and human capital development is small, and marginal factor productivity is very low. Failure to allocate scarce resources to where they are most productive can impose a limit on development.

QUESTION 8
How can improvements in the role and status of women have an especially beneficial impact on development prospects?
Improvements in the role and status of women can have an especially beneficial impact on development prospects in three main ways:
-With women now representing 40 percent of the global labor force and more than half the world’s university students, overall productivity will increase if their skills and talents are used more fully. For example, if women farmers have the same access as men to productive resources such as land and fertilizers, agricultural output in developing countries could increase by as much as 2.5 to 4 percent. Elimination of barriers against women working in certain sectors or occupations could increase output by raising women’s participation and labor productivity by as much as 25 percent in some countries through better allocation of their skills and talent .
-Greater control over household resources by women, either through their own earnings or cash transfers, can enhance countries’ growth prospects by changing spending in ways that benefit children. Evidence from countries as varied as Brazil, China, India, South Africa, and the United Kingdom shows that when women control more household income, either through their own earnings or through cash transfers, children benefit as a result of more spending on food and education
-Empowering women as economic, political, and social actors can change policy choices and make institutions more representative of a range of voices. In India, giving power to women at the local level led to greater provision of public goods, such as water and sanitation, which mattered more to women.

QUESTION 9
Major causes of extreme poverty are, less productivity in agriculture, unemployment, increase rate of rising population, increase in price, a short rate of economic development, less ultilization of resources, shortage of capital and able entrepreneurship.
The policies for effective improvement of the poor people include
– Free market policies to promote economic growth – hoping that rising living standards will filter down to the poorest in society.
– Minimum wages: Regulation of labour markets, for example, statutory minimum wages
– Direct provision of goods/services – subsidized housing, free education and healthcare

QUESTION 10
Rapid population growth has hampered economic development and caused massive unemployment. Lack of employment encourages criminal activities in the country and also it boost the underground economy. Rapid growth has outstripped increases in food production, and population pressure has led to the overuse of arable land and its destruction.
Rapid population growth threatens the economic progress of developing nations and large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity
Large families make an economic sense of poverty cause due to overpopulation unemployment rate would be high thereby posing a threat to financial security cause as it is said and I quote an idle mind is a devil’s workshop.

QUESTION 11
Why is there so much unemployment and underemployment in the developing world, especially in the cities and why do people continue to migrate to the cities from rural areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job are very slim?
Some causes of unemployment are:
Technology as the order of the day dictates the types of private-sector jobs available. What private sector employers see is a major disconnection in the demands of the industry and the products of higher institutions. This is why we have a large number of graduates not fitting the job available.
Poor Management of the Economy: The country’s wealth translates to the people’s wealth because a wealthy nation where resources abound will have citizens that can fend for themselves and create jobs for others. The misuse of the country’s resources has led to crippling economic conditions across the country.
Poor Investment Climate: Failure of government to create an enabling environment for sustainable growth hinders the creation of job opportunities by the private sector.
Skills Mismatch: Apart from the lack of an enabling business environment, skills mismatch has been described as one of the major challenges in curbing unemployment by the private sector. Most of the jobs the private sector advertises differ from the courses studied in higher institutions.
Poor Infrastructure: Although, faced with these harsh realities, innovations and the development of wealth persist. The private sector continues to expand and to provide employment. Poor infrastructural development in Nigeria impedes business growth. When private sectors do not grow maximally, they cannot provide more jobs. Even with the unfavorable business environments, poor policy structure and framework for implementation, the private sector is struggling to sustain business and create employment opportunities.

QUESTION 12
Better health assists to spur successful development; Studies show this is true for countries as well; health can be a causative factor for the aggregate economic growth of a country. Throughout history, improved health has been one of the main benefits of development. This benefit results partly from an increase in income and partly from scientific progress in the fight against disease and disability. This second factor is increasingly important compared to simple economic growth.
Good health is also a key indicator of a country’s progress: a nation with a healthy population is more likely to experience sustained growth. Ensuring the health and well-being of all is essential to poverty eradication efforts and achieving sustainable development, contributing to economic growth and prosperous communities.
The positive impact that health has on growth and poverty reduction occurs through a number of mechanisms, such as through a reduction of production losses due to fewer worker illnesses, the increased productivity of adults as a result of better nutrition, lower absenteeism rates and improved learning among school.

QUESTION 13
What is needed to address the problem of public health are as follows:
Improve health standards: In many countries, it is crucial to increase overall health standards. it should be assured that everyone who has severe health conditions can be treated appropriately. Governments have to make sure that hospitals have enough financial resources and staff to work in an efficient way in order to be able to cure as many people as possible.
Higher taxes on alcohol and tobacco: One measure to mitigate public health issues is to increase taxes on alcohol and tobacco. This tax increase will lead to an increase in prices and people will likely consume less due to this price increase.
Reduce corruptive actions: In order to be able to fight public health issues, we have to reduce corruptive actions. Bribing often leads to a state in which a few wealthy people can do whatever they want, while most of the people suffer from severe health conditions due to poverty and a lack of public healthcare services.
Promote vaccinations: Many citizens refuse vaccinations and also refuse vaccinations for their children. This behavior can cause the spread of diseases. By educating people about the effects of vaccinations, more people may be willing to accept vaccinations and therefore adverse public health effects may be lowered
Adequate research: Research is an important measure when it comes to the mitigation of public health issues. Advancements in research are the basis for the development of more effective drugs. Moreover, through extensive research, some diseases which are currently incurable may be curable in the future.
.

Name: Chibugo Faith Enyesiobi
Reg no: 2018/247409
Email: adabeauty940@gmail.com
Department: Combined social science
(Economics and psychology)
Question 6
Which are the most influential theories of development, and are they compatible? Is underdevelopment an internally (domestically) or externally (internationally) induced phenomenon

Answer
The most influential theories of development are;
1) Mercantilism
Mercantilism is thought to be one of the earliest forms of development economics that created practices to promote the success of a nation. It was a dominant economic theory practiced in Europe from the 16th to the 18th centuries. The theory promoted augmenting state power by lowering exposure to rival national powers.
Like political absolutism and absolute monarchies, mercantilism promoted government regulation by prohibiting colonies from transacting with other nations.
Mercantilism monopolized markets with staple ports and banned gold and silver exports. It believed the higher the supply of gold and silver, the more wealthy it would be. In general, it sought a trade surplus (exports greater than imports), did not allow the use of foreign ships for trade, and it optimized the use of domestic resources.

2) Economic Nationalism
Economic nationalism reflects policies that focus on domestic control of capital formation, the economy, and labor, using tariffs or other barriers. It restricts the movement of capital, goods, and labor.
Economic nationalists do not generally agree with the benefits of globalization and unlimited free trade. They focus on a policy that is isolationist so that the industries within a nation are able to grow without the threat of competition from established companies in other countries.
The economy of the early United States is a prime example of economic nationalism. As a new nation, it sought to develop itself without relying so much on outside influences. It enacted measures, such as high tariffs, so its own industries would grow unimpeded.

3) Linear Stages of Growth Model
The linear stages of growth model was used to revitalize the European economy after World War II.
This model states that economic growth can only stem from industrialization. The model also agrees that local institutions and social attitudes can restrict growth if these factors influence people’s savings rates and investments.
The linear stages of growth model portrays an appropriately designed addition of capital partnered with public intervention. This injection of capital and restrictions from the public sector leads to economic development and industrialization.
4)Structural-Change Theory
The structural-change theory focuses on changing the overall economic structure of a nation, which aims to shift society from being a primarily agrarian one to a primarily industrial one.
For example, Russia before the communist revolution was an agrarian society. When the communists overthrew the royal family and took power, they rapidly industrialized the nation, allowing it to eventually become a superpower.
And they are compatible in the sense they are a theories in different aspect that gives hope to countries in developing their economy and have. Good economic growth
6b) Underdevelopment is viewed as an externally-induced process which is perpetuated by a small but powerful domestic elite who form an alliance with the international capitalist system. The “development of underdevelopment” is therefore systemic and path-dependent.
underdevelopment is due to the historical evolution of a highly unequal international capitalist system of rich country-poor country relationships. Developed nations are intentionally exploitative or unintentionally neglectful towards developing countries. Underdevelopment is thus externally induced.
Question7
What constraints most hold back accelerated growth, depending on local conditions? Some of the constraints are:
1. Joint Family System :-
In many countries like India and Pakistan this system is still available. All the members of the family live together. Few of them work hard while the others do nothing, except quarreling with one another. So due to this reason national product reduces.
2. Literacy :-
The literacy rate is very low in the under developed countries. It reduces the rate of economic growth. In Indian and Pakistan…
Question 8
How can improvements in the role and status of women have an especially beneficial impact on development prospects?

Answer
On International Women’s Day 2019, the UN Women Partners met with BNP Paribas to promote women’s economic empowerment by supporting women in agriculture and sustainable development in Senegal. With this project, the UN aims to demonstrates its commitment to promoting women’s empowerment in order to achieve Sustainable Development Goal 5 – to achieve gender equality and empower women and girls. But, as Acting Regional Director for West and Central Africa, Oulimata Sarr, states it’s not just about furthering equality, women are actually key to the economic development of third-world countries like Senegal: “Women are at the centre of Senegalese development and we want to support them in promising agricultural value chains to ensure their sustainable economic empowerment.”
Giving women greater economic empowerment means enabling women to increase their right to economic resources and their control over meaningful decisions that benefit themselves, their households and their communities. These include the right to control their own time, their income and access to participation in existing markets equally. Greater empowerment improves their well-being and economic status.
Gender inequality remains an issue in the Sub-Saharan Africa region, it is one of the most unequal areas in the world and progress is much slower than in other regions. Much of the gender inequality in developing countries is caused by the prevalence of cultural norms that aggravate favouritism towards males.
Gender inequality comes at a significant economic cost as it hinders productivity and economic growth globally, countries are losing $160 trillion in wealth because of differences in lifetime earnings between women and men. In addition, an IMF staff note paper showed that the obstacles to women entering the labour market have more economic cost than was believed to be the case, and benefits from reducing the barrier of gender inequality are likely to be larger than initially thought. Reducing gender inequality is therefore key to economic development.
Empowering more women to work, results in better growth of third-world economies. This is because women’s economic empowerment, increases economic diversification, boosts productivity and income equality, resulting in other positive development outcomes. As a study from the IMF shows, policies that improve access to educational opportunities and finance for women can contribute to a reduction in inequality and an increase in economic growth for the developing country. Providing women and girls with more educational opportunities contributes to: “reductions in fertility rates and increases in labour force participation rates, and in which thereby better quality of human capital of the future economy and generations.”
In Sub-Saharan Africa, fewer girls enrol in primary school than boys and there is an even lower enrollment rate in secondary school for girls compared with boys. Girls in this region are often prevented from attending school due to poverty and work demands at home, this is then further aggravated by higher rates of child marriage amongst girls in this situation.
However, poverty decreases when more women and girls are educated. This is because with basic education, a woman is more likely to obtain a job and earn a higher wage since one percentage point increase in female education raises the average level of GDP by 0.37 percentage points.
It’s not only about women earning higher wages, women also benefit their families and communities as they are often more likely to spend money on things that support their children, the household. This then improves the chances of their family to achieve health and prosperity.
Giving girls equal access to education and opportunities, enables them to eventually grow into educated, resilient women able to take on leadership roles in their countries, resulting in significant positive developmental outcomes for that country. This in turn helps to speed up the reduction in gender inequality, as having more women in leadership roles, means they develop policies that will increase support for women and girls.
For example, President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf of Liberia, Africa’s first female president, advocated the safety of women, empowerment of women, and women’s rights to participation in peace-building work. In countries such as Rwanda, an increase in the number of female politician and lawmakers has furthered gender equality by implementing reproductive rights and equal land rights for women, which has helped increase investments in land by 18 percentage points, twice the level observed for men. They have also established gender desks at police stations to help women who face domestic violence and other forms of violence.
Women are crucial to the economic development of countries. By empowering women through policies such as greater access to educational opportunities and finance, this results in better economic development for everyone as women with economic resources and control over meaningful decisions tend not only to benefit themselves but also their households and communities. Women’s equality is vital to increasing sustainable economic growth in developing countries, in order to empower more women and girls, there needs to be better access to education, health and opportunities in the labour market.
Question 9:
What are the causes of extreme poverty , and what policies have been most effective for improving the lives of the poorest of the poor?
Answer
For A country here some causes for extreme poverty
1. Government Corruption
Since its founding, government corruption has plagued Nigeria. This corruption is one of the major causes of poverty in Nigeria. Government officials often take payments from oil companies that are supposed to go into public trusts—payments that can often total more than $1 billion—and instead siphon that money into their own personal bank accounts.
When government officials engage in this kind of corruption, the poor and underserved populations within Nigeria are inevitably hurt. If these large sums of money stopped going into government officials’ pockets, the Nigerian government could use that money to build up the country’s infrastructure—electricity, roads, running water and more.
2. Lack of Economic Infrastructure
An infrastructure that supports economic growth at every level is essential to pull people out of poverty. In Nigeria, economic infrastructure includes things like access to micro-credit that help farmers invest in their crops and entrepreneurs lift their businesses off the ground. Micro-credit is an especially important tool for Nigerian women working to escape poverty.
Female entrepreneurship and autonomy can provide financial stability to entire families and, by extension, larger communities. Another one of the main causes of poverty in Nigeria is the simple fact that many Nigerians, especially in rural communities, do not have the means to escape their circumstances. Setting up economic structures that empower Nigerian people is vital to combating poverty within the country.
3. Poor Access to Education
Economic infrastructure is not the only infrastructure that is lacking in Nigeria. Currently, a lack of a robust educational system underserves many of the poorest Nigerians. 10.5 million Nigerian children do not attend school at all, and 60% of those children are girls.
These problems are especially profound in the northern, more rural parts of Nigeria. Terrorist groups such as Boko Haram that vilify Western education further exasperate the situation. Education gives many the skills they need to enter the workforce and escape impoverishment, and the lack of educational opportunity is one of the truly devastating causes of poverty in Nigeria.
4. Poor Access to Healthcare
Nigeria might be the most populous country in Africa, but they are running low on healthcare professionals. The current ratio of nurses, midwives and doctors to patients is 1.95 to 1,000.

With such a low density of medical care available, many people in Nigeria either go completely without medical care or without enough medical care. But sickness is costly, and oftentimes can trap people into never-ending cycles of poverty. Improving Nigerians’ access to healthcare is an essential step to reduce the amount of poverty in Nigeria.
At the surface, these problems can seem daunting and unsolvable. But the first step to crafting sustainable solutions is understanding the contours of the problem. By understanding the causes of poverty in Nigeria, organizations like UNICEF and WHO have started various initiatives to strengthen the economic, education, and health care infrastructure in Nigeria, as well as reduce government corruption.
Working hand in hand with international partners, Nigeria is continuously demonstrating its commitment to crafting a better future for its impoverished citizens.
Good solutions include:
1. Create jobs
The best pathway out of poverty is a well-paying job. To get back to prerecession employment levels, we must create 5.6 million new jobs. At the current pace, however, we will not get there until July 2018. To kick-start job growth, the federal government should invest in job-creation strategies such as rebuilding our infrastructure; developing renewable energy sources; renovating abandoned housing; and making other common-sense investments that create jobs, revitalize neighborhoods, and boost our national economy. We should also build on proven models of subsidized employment to help the long-term unemployed and other disadvantaged workers re-enter the labor force.
In addition, the extension of federal unemployment insurance would have created 200,000 new jobs in 2014, according to the Congressional Budget Office. Indeed, every $1 in benefits that flows to jobless workers yields more than $1.50 in economic activity. Unfortunately, Congress failed to extend federal unemployment insurance at the end of 2013, leaving 1.3 million Americans and their families without this vital economic lifeline.
2. Raise the minimum wage
In the late 1960s, a full-time worker earning the minimum wage could lift a family of three out of poverty. Had the minimum wage back then been indexed to inflation, it would be $10.86 per hour today, compared to the current federal minimum wage of $7.25 per hour. Raising the minimum wage to $10.10 per hour and indexing it to inflation—as President Barack Obama and several members of Congress have called for—would lift more than 4 million Americans out of poverty. Nearly one in five children would see their parent get a raise. Recent action taken by cities and states—such as Seattle, Washington; California; Connecticut; and New Jersey—shows that boosting the minimum wage reduces poverty and increases wages.
3. Increase the Earned Income Tax Credit for childless workers
One of our nation’s most effective anti-poverty tools, the Earned Income Tax Credit, or EITC, helped more than 6.5 million Americans—including 3.3 million children—avoid poverty in 2012. It’s also an investment that pays long-term dividends. Children who receive the EITC are more likely to graduate high school and to have higher earnings in adulthood. Yet childless workers largely miss out on the benefit, as the maximum EITC for these workers is less than one-tenth that awarded to workers with two children.
President Obama and policymakers across the political spectrum have called for boosting the EITC in order to right this wrong. Importantly, this policy change should be combined with a hike in the minimum wage; one is not a substitute for the other.
4. Support pay equity
With female full-time workers earning just 78 cents for every $1 earned by men, action must be taken to ensure equal pay for equal work. Closing the gender wage gap would cut poverty in half for working women and their families and add nearly half a trillion dollars to the nation’s gross domestic product. Passing the Paycheck Fairness Act to hold employers accountable for discriminatory salary practices would be a key first step.
5. Provide paid leave and paid sick days
The United States is the only developed country in the world without paid family and medical leave and paid sick days, making it very difficult for millions of American families to balance work and family without having to sacrifice needed income. Paid leave is an important anti-poverty policy, as having a child is one of the leading causes of economic hardship. Additionally, nearly 4 in 10 private-sector workers—and 7 in 10 low-wage workers—do not have a single paid sick day, putting them in the impossible position of having to forgo needed income, or even their job, in order to care for a sick child. The Family and Medical Insurance Leave Act, or FAMILY Act, would provide paid leave protection to workers who need to take time off due to their own illness, the illness of a family member, or the birth of a child. And the Healthy Families Act would enable workers to earn up to seven job-protected sick days per year.
6. Establish work schedules that work
Low-wage and hourly jobs increasingly come with unpredictable and constantly shifting work schedules, which means workers struggle even more to balance erratic work hours with caring for their families. Ever-changing work schedules make accessing child care even more difficult than it already is and leave workers uncertain about their monthly income. Furthermore, things many of us take for granted—such as scheduling a doctor’s appointment or a parent-teacher conference at school—become herculean tasks. The Schedules That Work Act would require two weeks’ advance notice of worker schedules, which would allow employees to request needed schedule changes. It would also protect them from retaliation for making such requests—and provide guaranteed pay for cancelled or shortened shifts. These are all important first steps to make balancing work and family possible.
7. Invest in affordable, high-quality child care and early education
The lack of affordable, high-quality child care serves as a major barrier to reaching the middle class. In fact, one year of child care for an infant costs more than one year of tuition at most states’ four-year public colleges. On average, poor families who pay out of pocket for child care spend one-third of their incomes just to be able to work. Furthermore, federal child care assistance reaches only one in six eligible children.
Boosting investments in Head Start and the Child Care and Development Block Grant, as well as passing the Strong Start for America’s Children Act—which would invest in preschool, high-quality child care for infants and toddlers, and home-visiting services for pregnant women and mothers with infants—will help more struggling families obtain the child care they need in order to work and improve the future economic mobility of America’s children.
8. Expand Medicaid
Since it was signed into law in 2010, the Affordable Care Act has expanded access to high-quality, affordable health coverage for millions of Americans. However, 23 states continue to refuse to expand their Medicaid programs to cover adults up to 138 percent of the federal poverty level—making the lives of many families on the brink much harder. Expanding Medicaid would mean more than just access to health care—it would free up limited household income for other basic needs such as paying rent and putting food on the table. Having health coverage is also an important buffer against the economic consequences of illness and injury; unpaid medical bills are the leading cause of bankruptcy. Studies link Medicaid coverage not only to improved health, improved access to health care services, and lower mortality rates, but also to reduced financial strain.
9. Reform the criminal justice system and enact policies that support successful re-entry
The United States incarcerates more of its citizens than any other country in the world. Today, more than 1.5 million Americans are behind bars in state and federal prisons, a figure that has increased fivefold since 1980. The impact on communities of color is particularly staggering: One in four African American children who grew up during this era of mass incarceration have had a parent incarcerated.
Mass incarceration is a key driver of poverty. When a parent is incarcerated, his or her family must find a way to make ends meet without a necessary source of income Additionally, even a minor criminal record comes with significant collateral consequences that can serve as lifelong barriers to climbing out of poverty. For example, people with criminal records face substantial barriers to employment, housing, education, public assistance, and building good credit. More than 90 percent of employers now use background checks in hiring, and even an arrest without a conviction can prevent an individual from getting a job. The “one strike and you’re out” policy used by public housing authorities makes it difficult if not impossible for individuals with even decades-old criminal records to obtain housing, which can stand in the way of family reunification. Furthermore, a lifetime ban—for individuals with felony drug convictions—on receiving certain types of public assistance persists in more than half of U.S. states, making subsistence even more difficult for individuals seeking to regain their footing, and their families.
In addition to common-sense sentencing reform to ensure that we no longer fill our nation’s prisons with nonviolent, low-level offenders, policymakers should explore alternatives to incarceration, such as diversion programs for individuals with mental health and substance abuse challenges. We must also remove barriers to employment, housing, education, and public assistance. A decades-old criminal record should not consign an individual to a life of poverty.
10. Do no harm
The across-the-board spending cuts known as sequestration—which took effect in 2013—slashed funding for programs and services that provide vital support to low-income families. Sequestration cost the U.S. economy as many as 1.6 million jobs between mid-2013 and 2014. Some relief was provided this January, when Congress passed the Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2014, but many important tools to help low-income individuals and families pave a path to the middle class—such as adult and youth education and training programs, child welfare, and community development programs—were on a downward funding trend even before sequestration took effect.
As Congress considers a continuing resolution to fund the federal government past October 1 and avoid another government shutdown, it should reject further cuts to programs and services such as the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children, or WIC, which provides vital nutrition assistance to pregnant women and mothers with new babies. Thereafter, Congress should make permanent the important improvements made to the EITC and the Child Tax Credit as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, which are set to expire in 2017. And it should avoid additional cuts to vital programs such as the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, or SNAP, formerly known as food stamps, which suffered two rounds of deep cuts in 2013 and 2014.
Question 10. Rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations? Do large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity?
Part A:
Rapid population growth is one of the major contributing factors to the poverty and under-development of Third World countries–especially African countries, which boast the highest population growth rates in the world. Several factors are responsible for the rapid growth: a drop in mortality rates, a young population, improved standards of living, and attitudes and practices which favor high fertility. Africans view large families as an economic asset and as a symbol of worth and honor, and parents see it as security during old age. The ideal family size in Africa is 5 to 7 children. Because of its complex causes, curbing the rapid growth is not easy. In addition to strategic difficulties, population policies usually meet opposition, often from religious groups. So in order to gain acceptance, population programs need to be integrated with ongoing community development programs. Even though it often engenders opposition, family planning is more crucial then ever, as the rapid population growth continues to create an explosive situation. Rapid growth has led to uncontrolled urbanization, which has produced overcrowding, destitution, crime, pollution, and political turmoil. Rapid growth has outstripped increases in food production, and population pressure has led to the overuse of arable land and its destruction. Rapid growth has also hampered economic development and caused massive unemployment. 45% of Kenya’s labor force is unemployed. Ultimately, rapid growth has undermined the quality of life of people. Society’s responsibility extends beyond simply ensuring the survival of the population. Society must strive to provide people with a good life–one with dignity.
Part B
No because there has been a uniformly high correlation between national income growth and falling birth rates, and between family incomes and fertility. Economists and demographers for the most part agree that important ingredients of improved living standards, such as urbanization, industrialization and rising opportunities for non-agrarian employment, improved educational levels, and better health all lead to changed parental perceptions of the costs and benefits of children, leading in turn to lower fertility.
Question 11 Why is there so much unemployment and underemployment in the developing world, especially in cities, and why do people continue to migrate to the cities from rural areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job are very slim?
Answer
Lack of Physical Capital Relative to Labour Force:
Keynesian theory is mainly concerned with cyclical unemployment, which emerges in the developed capitalist countries, especially in times of depression. During the period 1929-33, the developed capitalist economies suffered from serve depression which caused huge magnitude of unemployment. Keynes analysed this type of unemployment and asserted that it was caused by deficiency of aggregate demand.
Nature:
The nature of unemployment in under-developed countries is quite different; it is of chronic and long-term nature. It is now almost universally recognised that the chronic unemployment and under-employment in less developed countries are not due to the lack of aggregate effective demand which, according to J.M. Keynes, was responsible for unemployment in developed countries in times of depression. Rather it is stated to be due to the lack of land, capital and other complementary resources in relation to the total population and labour force.
Use of Capital Intensive Techniques:
An important factor responsible for slow growth of employment has been the use of capital-intensive techniques of production, even in consumer goods indpstries where alternative labour-intensive techniques are available. Even before 1991, under the industrial policy resolution 1956, the development of consumer goods industries were left open for the private sector.
However, private sector prefers to invest in highly capital-intensive plants and equipment on the basis of technology developed in labour- scarce western countries. It is argued by them the alternative labour-intensive techniques have low productivity and low-surplus-generating capacity. However, the important reason for the use of capital-intensive techniques has been the availability of cheap capital
. Rigid Protective Labour Legislation:
Another reason for the slow growth of employment in the organised sector has been the existence of unduly rigid protective labour legislation which makes it very difficult to retrench a worker who has been employed for 240 days. Labour-legislation is so much rigid that it is even difficult to close down the unit and quit the industry. Thus, this excessively protective labour-legislation induces private entrepreneurs to prefer the maximum use of capital in place of labour.
5. Neglect of the Role of Agriculture in Employment Generation:
An important factor responsible for slow growth of employment opportunities is the neglect of agriculture for generating employment opportunities. The general perception, as existed in the first three five year plans in India (1951-65) as well as in the theoretical models of growth for dualistic economies such as Lewis “Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labour” was that agriculture already contained surplus labour and it was required to withdraw this surplus labour from agriculture and employ them in the modern industrial sector. By the mid-sixties it was realised that not to speak of employing new entrains to the labour force year after year, the modern industrial sector could not absorb productivity even a fraction of the then existing unemployed persons in the foreseeable feature.
Agriculture though containing surplus labour can generate employment opportunities if proper strategy for its development is adopted. For instance, the empirical evidence shows that on an irrigated hectare of land the number of man-hours employed is almost twice that on the unirrigated hectare. Irrigation requires more labour input for watering the fields, but also since output per hectare on irrigated land is much higher, more labour is used for harvesting and threshing the crop. Besides, irrigation makes the adoption of double cropping possible which greatly raises the employment potential of agriculture.
[8/27, 2:40 PM] Akabugo: The majority of migrants worldwide, about 763 million, move within their own countries rather than abroad. A large share of migrants come from rural areas. They move from one rural area to another or from rural to urban areas. People decide to migrate for many reasons. Individuals and families consider factors such as risks, aspirations and socio-economic conditions. For many, migration is a way to cope with unemployment, food insecurity, poverty, or vulnerability to climate change. For others, it is an effective livelihood diversification strategy to adapt to the seasonality of agriculture. In recent years, demographic forces, globalization and climate change have been increasing the pressure to migrate both within and across countries.
Migration poses challenges and opportunities for food security, sustainable agriculture and rural development. For instance, losses in human capital and agricultural labour may have negative impacts on crop production and food availability. On the other hand, people who migrate may be able to escape poor living conditions, reduce pressure on resources in the places they leave behind and support rural areas of origin through transfer of skills, know-how and remittances to family back home. Furthermore, migrant workers play an essential role in agri-food systems and ensuring food supplies. Fostering rural-urban socio-economic linkages; enhancing and diversifying employment opportunities in agri-food systems and green sectors, especially for women and youth; helping the poor to better manage risks through social protection; and leveraging remittances for investments in the rural sector can be effective strategies for improving livelihoods, increasing resilience and addressing the adverse drivers of migration. At the same time, it is key to facilitate better mobility between rural and urban areas, and between sectors of the economy to enhance the benefits of migration and its contribution to agriculture, rural development and climate adaptation
Question 12: Wealthier societies are also healthier ones because they have more resources for improving nutrition and healthcare. But, does better health spur successful development?
Answer
I)health impacts economic growth in a number of ways. For example, it reduces production losses due to worker illness, it increases the productivity of adult as a result of better nutrition, and it lowers absenteeism rates and improves learning among school children.
improved health has been one of the main benefits of development. This benefit results partly from an increase in income and partly from scientific progress in the fight against disease and disability. This second factor is increasingly important compared to simple economic growth.
Better health is central to human happiness and well-being. It also makes an important contribution to economic progress, as healthy populations live longer, are more productive, and save more
II population health really does contribute meaningfully to a community’s economic strength, and that good community health helps protects against economic shocks, like the Great Recession
: Ill-health results in unemployment and unemployment leads to poverty. This must be double agony, poor health in developing nation. It destroys all levels of human life and to prevent the hardships poverty inflicts on humans, the victims must die prematurely
Question 13:What is the impact of poor public health on the prospects for development, and what is needed to address these problems?
Answer
Disease and poor health represent a great burden to affected individuals. Whilst
difficult to quantify, the welfare losses to the individual of being severely ill can be
significant, particularly in those developing regions with limited social security
provision and health care. Individuals suffering from illness may be weak, unable to
work or study and generally unable to provide for children and other dependants. At a
more aggregated level, however, it seems likely that a high disease burden may have
an adverse impact on a country’s productivity, growth and, ultimately, economic
development. The many studies that have attempted to explain cross-country
differences in economic growth and productivity rates have typically suggested that
education, trade openness, savings, inflation and the initial level of income are
amongst the key explanatory variables (Barro, 1991; Mankiw et al., 1992; Barro and
Sala-i-Martin, 1995; Miller and Upadhyay, 2000). There are good reasons to suggest,
however, that health is also an important determinant. Lvovsky (2001), for instance,
estimates that the burden of disease in LDCs, expressed in disability-adjusted life
years (DALYs) lost per million people, is approximately twice that in developed
countries.1
This results from the far higher incidence of disease and malnutrition in
LDCs compared to developed regions. Whilst the burden of disease may be a function
of poverty, a high disease burden is also likely to adversely affect a nation’s
development prospects.
part b
I)Health information system The Integrated Disease Surveillance Project was set up to establish a dedicated highway of information relating to disease occurrence required for prevention and containment at the community level, but the slow pace of implementation is due to poor efforts in involving critical actors outside the public sector. Health profiles published by the government should be used to help communities prioritize their health problems and to inform local decision making. Public health laboratories have a good capacity to support the government’s diagnostic and research activities on health risks and threats, but are not being utilized efficiently. Mechanisms to monitor epidemiological challenges like mental health, occupational health and other environment risks are yet to be put in place.
II)Health research system There is a need for strengthening research infrastructure in the departments of community medicine in various institutes and to foster their partnerships with state health services.
III)Regulation and enforcement in public health
A good system of regulation is fundamental to successful public health outcomes. It reduces exposure to disease through enforcement of sanitary codes, e.g., water quality monitoring, slaughterhouse hygiene and food safety. Wide gaps exist in the enforcement, monitoring and evaluation, resulting in a weak public health system. This is partly due to poor financing for public health, lack of leadership and commitment of public health functionaries and lack of community involvement. Revival of public health regulation through concerted efforts by the government is possible through updation and implementation of public health laws, consulting stakeholders and increasing public awareness of existing laws and their enforcement procedures.
IV)Health promotion
Stopping the spread of STDs and HIV/AIDS, helping youth recognize the dangers of tobacco smoking and promoting physical activity. These are a few examples of behavior change communication that focus on ways that encourage people to make healthy choices. Development of community-wide education programs and other health promotion activities need to be strengthened. Much can be done to improve the effectiveness of health promotion by extending it to rural areas as well; observing days like “Diabetes day” and “Heart day” even in villages will help create awareness at the grassroot level.
V) Human resource development and capacity building
There are several shortfalls that need to be addressed in the development of human resources for public health services. There is a dire need to establish training facilities for public health specialists along with identifying the scope for their contribution in the field. The Public Health Foundation of India is a positive step to redress the limited institutional capacity in India by strengthening training, research and policy development in public health. Preservice training is essential to train the medical workforce in public health leadership and to impart skills required for the practice of public health. Changes in the undergraduate curriculum are vital for capacity building in emerging issues like geriatric care, adolescent health and mental health. Inservice training for medical officers is essential for imparting management skills and leadership qualities. Equally important is the need to increase the number of paramedical workers and training institutes in India.
VI)Public health policy
Identification of health objectives and targets is one of the more visible strategies to direct the activities of the health sector, e.g. in the United States, the “Healthy People 2010” offers a simple but powerful idea by providing health objectives in a format that enables diverse groups to combine their efforts and work as a team. Similarly, in India, we need a road map to “better health for all” that can be used by states, communities, professional organizations and all sectors. It will also facilitate changes in resource allocation for public health interventions and a platform for concerted intersectoral action, thereby enabling policy coherence.
Scope for further action in the health sector
School health, mental health, referral system and urban health remain as weak links in India’s health system, despite featuring in the national health policy. School health programs have become almost defunct because of administrative, managerial and logistic problems. Mental health has remained elusive even after implementing the National Mental Health Program.
On a positive note, innovative schemes through public-private partnerships are being tried in various parts of the country in promoting referrals. Similarly, the much awaited National Urban Health Mission might offer solutions with regards to urban health.

Name: Onyedekwe Henry Chinedu
Reg no.: 2018/242306
Department: Economics

1. Which are the most influential theories of development, and are they compatible? Is underdevelopment an internally (domestically) or externally (internationally) induced phenomenon?

Theories have been made towards the economic development but the most recognized are two. which are;
linear growth model and
structural change theory

Linear growth model focuses on the accelerated accumulation of capital, through the utilization of both domestic and international savings as a means of spurring investment, as the primary means of promoting economic growth and, thus, development. while

Structural Change Theory deals with policies focused on changing the economic structures of developing countries from being composed primarily of subsistence agricultural practices to being a more modern, more urbanized, and more industrially diverse manufacturing and service economy.

both theories are in a sense compatible as there have proven to be effective in their own productive ways and as such each aims to achieve optimum development of an economy.

Underdevelopment is mainly an internally induced phenomenon. external factors may have a few factors to contribute to the underdevelopment of a nation but the main upliftment/upgrading of a nation’s economy rest on the shoulders of that nation. no nation will abandon its own internal problems and affairs and try to help another nation’s underdeveloped problems. if a nation truly wants to develop they should focus mostly on policy making and implementations, strategic planning and management of resources. these are of a few important notes for an underdeveloped nation to use and upgrade themselves.

2. What constraints most hold back accelerated growth, depending on local conditions?

Most definitely, Religious and Traditional Taboos and beliefs, high levels of informality in the economy, Low productivity due to poor human capital development, negative balance of trade, lack of strategic planning and implementations, Corruption are the most critical factors which might hinder a nation’s growth and development. But CORRUPTION is the key factor.
Corruption in the sense that those in power and authority tends to enrich themselves the more while not giving a hoot to how bad the economy is. they only care for their selfish gains and desires, therefore leading to mismanagement of public funds and lots of other atrocities.

3. How can improvements in the role and status of women have an especially beneficial impact on development prospects?

women in their own various capacities contribute a lot to the growth of the economy through their involvement in small and medium enterprises they tend to foster Economic growth and development.

4. What are the causes of extreme poverty, and what policies have been most effective for improving the lives of the poorest of the poor?

there are several causes of poverty in the economy such as Government Corruption, lack of good Economic infrastructures, Poor access to Quality education, poor access to healthcare, overpopulation, lack of innovative ideas, government restrictions, low financial capabilities to start up a lucrative business and many more.

There hasn’t been a very effective policy that might help eradicate poverty in Nigeria. but there are a few existing policies such as health care policy, primary education, agricultural policies, small and medium enterprises policies, family planning etc

5. Rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations? Do large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity?

When a nation is overpopulated, the available resources in that nation won’t be available for everyone. and as such it might lead to an increase in crime since everyone would definitely want to eat and survive. overpopulation is actually a cause of poverty and can actually lead to financial insecurity in a Nation.

6. Why is there so much unemployment and underemployment in the developing world, especially in the cities, and why do people continue to migrate to the cities from rural areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job are very slim?

while unemployment is a situation when a person who is actively searching for employment is unable to find work, Underemployment refers to a situation in which individuals are forced to work in low-paying or low-skill jobs.
there’s much unemployment and underemployment in the developing world mainly because there are very few jobs available for the population due to overpopulation, lack of productive industries and scarcity of jobs while there are more than enough manpower ready to work at any point in time.
most people in the rural area are of the mindset that there’s wealth in the urban regions that’s why they migrate from the rural areas to that if the urban. furthermore, they feel life is easier in the urban regions coz of the availability of essential basic amenities.

7. Wealthier societies are also healthier ones because they have more resources for improving nutrition and health care. But does better health also help spur successful development?

As a popular saying goes “health is wealth”. when a society is healthy, they tend to be more productivities in their activities because when the body is down, the mind goes with it which will definitely lead to little or no productivity.

8. What is the impact of poor public health on the prospects for development, and what is needed to address these problems?

Most especially in developing countries, poor public health is a major setback to development because these nations have individuals who are not adequately taken care of. When a larger fraction or portion of the population is sick and can’t be efficiently and effectively be revived due to poor public health facilities, then the economic progression of that nation will be at a standstill or slowly progress.

the possible solutions to these problems are that there should be high investment in the health sector, Better health care equipments, Employment of qualified medical practitioners like the Doctors, Nurses, Surgeons etc, Increase in health care infrastructures, Public knowledge and awareness on better public health care maintenance.

NAME: UZUIGWE ESTHER
REG. NUMBER: 2018/SD/37300
DEPARTMENT: EDUCATION/ECONOMICS
LEVEL: 3/5
COURSE CODE: ECO 361

QUESTION 1 Which are the most influential theories of development, and are they compatible? Is underdevelopment an internally (domestically) or externally (internationally) induced phenomenon?
•Structural-Change Theory: When the communists overthrew the royal family and took power in Russia, they rapidly industrialized the nation, allowing it to eventually become a superpower. The structural-change theory focuses on changing the overall economic structure of a nation, which aims to shift society from being a primarily agrarian one to a primarily industrial one.
•Linear Stages of Growth Model: The linear stages of growth model was used to revitalize the European economy after World War II. This model states that economic growth can only stem from industrialization. The model also agrees that local institutions and social attitudes can restrict growth if these factors influence people’s savings rates and investments.

QUESTION 2: What constraints most hold back accelerated growth, depending on local conditions? Some of the constraints are:
– Lack of financial capital.
– Inefficiencies within the micro-economy.
– Missing markets.
– Imbalances in the structure of the economy.
– Barriers to trade.
– Rapidly growing or declining population.
– Lack of human capital.
– Poor governance and corruption.
– Over-exploitation of environmental capital.

QUESTION 3 How can improvements in the role and status of women have an especially beneficial impact on development prospects?
Giving women greater economic empowerment means enabling women to increase their right to economic resources and their control over meaningful decisions that benefit themselves, their households and their communities. These include the right to control their own time, their income and access to participation in existing markets equally. Greater empowerment improves their well-being and economic status. Improving the role and status of women yields the highest return on all development investments. Reducing the role and the status of women who are in active labour force, for example, may lead to reduction in total household expenditure, government tax revenues, private businesses and personal savings; and hence the resources available for a successful development.
In a society where there is an improvement in the role and status of women, there is bound to be unprecedented economic growth and development. Providing women and girls with more educational opportunities contributes to: “reductions in fertility rates and increases in labour force participation rates, and in which thereby better quality of human capital of the future economy and generations.”
Empowering more women to work, results in better growth of third-world economies. This is because women’s economic empowerment, increases economic diversification, boosts productivity and income equality, resulting in other positive development outcomes.

QUESTION 4: What are the causes of extreme poverty, and what policies have been most effective for improving the lives of the poorest of the poor?
The causes of extreme poverty are as follows:
Increase rate of rising population: People are added every year by an incredible number to the population which raises the demand for consumption goods considerably.
Less utilization of resources: Underemployment and veiled unemployment of human resources and less utilization of resources have resulted in low production in the agricultural sector. This brings a downfall in the standard of living.
Increasing price rise: The poor are becoming poorer because of continuous and steep price rise. It has benefited a few people in the society and the persons in lower income group find it difficult to get their minimum needs.
Unemployment: One of the main causes of poverty is the continuous expanding army of unemployed in our country. The job seeker is increasing in number at a higher rate than the expansion in employment opportunities.
Shortage of capital and able entrepreneurship: The much-required capital and sustainable entrepreneurship play a very important role in accelerating the growth. But these are in short supply making it difficult to increase production significantly.
Policies used in curbing poverty include:
Set of policies designed to bring about far-reaching structural changes in the distribution of assets, power, and access to education and associated income- earning (employment) opportunities.
Correcting distorted prices should contribute to greater productive efficiency, more employment, and less poverty. The promotion of indigenous technological research and development of efficient, labor-intensive methods of production may also be valuable.
Set of policies aimed at changing the size distribution of income at the top by enforcing legislated progressive taxation on income and wealth, and at the bottom by implementing direct transfer payments and expanding the provision of publicly provided consumption goods and services.
A set of targeted policies that go beyond social safety programs to offer programs that build the poor’s capabilities and human and social capital.

QUESTION 5: Rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations? Do large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity?
Large families bring about increase in the country’s population which leads to rapid population growth. Rapid population growth can adversely affect the nation’s economy in the following ways;
In an environment where there is financial insecurity, family members tend to be driven away in to doing the wrong things and partaking in activities illegal such as human and drug trafficking, robbery, fraud, prostitution and kidnapping etc. These illegal and bad vices tarnish the image of a nation and thereby reduces the economic progress of the nation by chasing foreign and local investors away to other nations.
It brings about expansion of the nation’s budget: the larger the population, the bigger the nation’s budget because it they would have to make preparations for the whole country. This means that they would have to some of the funds allocated to the development and progress of the country to the maintenance of the country.
Rapid population growth and large families will bring about unemployment, lack of social amenities such as water.
Large families in a poverty stricken environment is not helpful in the improvement of the economy of a nation in the sense that in such families, the breadwinners would have problems catering for their whole families on an average worker’s salary.

QUESTION 6
Causes of Unemployment in Developing Countries:
Lack of the Stock of Physical Capital: The major cause of unemployment and underemployment in underdeveloped countries is the deficiency of the stock of capitaI in relation to the needs of the growing labour force. With the growth of technology and specialisation, man needs much more capital with which to engage in the productive activity. A nation’s stock of capital can be enlarged by increased investment which in the absence of any unutilised resources, requires additional saving on the part of the community.
Use of Capital Intensive Techniques: It is argued by them the alternative labour-intensive techniques have low productivity and low-surplus-generating capacity. However, the important reason for the use of capital-intensive techniques has been the availability of cheap capital

Inequitable Distribution of Land: inequitable distribution of land can be seen in many countries so that many agricultural households have no adequate access to land which is an important asset for agricultural production and employment
4. Rigid Protective Labour Legislation: Labour-legislation is so much rigid that it is even difficult to close down the unit and quit the industry. Thus, this excessively protective labour-legislation induces private entrepreneurs to prefer the maximum use of capital in place of labour.

6. Lack of Infrastructure: Unemployment and under-employment are caused by more basic structural factors such as lack of capital, use of capital-intensive technologies, lack of access to land for agricultural household, lack of infrastructure, racial growth of population resulting in large annual increments in labour force year after year. Unemployment in India, as in other developing countries, manifests itself in both open unemployment and under-employment.

QUESTION 7
Health affects economic growth directly through labor productivity and the economic burden of illnesses, for example. Health also indirectly impacts economic growth since aspects such as child health affect the future income of people through the impact health has on education. In order to explain the relationship between health and economic growth, it is necessary to understand the concept of health in a broad sense. Health is not only the absence of illnesses; it is also the ability of people to develop to their potential during their entire lives. In that sense, health is an asset individuals possess, which has intrinsic value (being healthy is a very important source of well-being) as well as instrumental value. In instrumental terms, health impacts economic growth in a number of ways. Health also allows for the use of natural resources that used to be totally or partially inaccessible due to illnesses. Finally, it permits the different use of financial resources that might normally be destined for the treatment of ill health.
This indirect impact is easier to understand if it is observed on a family level. When a family is healthy, both the mother and the father can hold a job, earn money which allows them to feed, protect and send their children to school. Healthy and well-nourished children will perform better in school and a better performance in school will positively impact their future income. If parents ensure that their children have a high probability of reaching adulthood, in general they will have fewer children and they will be able to invest more in health and education for each of them. Additionally, the loss of health affects the poor to a greater extent since the main, and at times, only asset they have is their body. When they become ill they have fewer alternative solutions and suffer greater consequences

QUESTION 8 what is the impact of poor public health on the prospects for development, and what is needed to address these problems?
At a societal level, poor population health is associated with lower savings rates, lower rates of return on capital, and lower levels of domestic and foreign investment; all of these factors can and do contribute to reductions in economic growth.
* Provide community partnerships to identify and solve health problems.
* Monitor health status to identify community health problems.
* Enforce laws, rules and regulations that protect public health and the environment and ensure safety.
* Diagonise and investigate health problems and health hazards in the community.
* Develop policies and rules that support individual and community health efforts.
* Inform, educate, and empower people about health issues.
* Assure a competent workforce within the health care industry and public health departments.

from the previous questions, clearly and convincingly answer the following Questions as the Special Adviser to Mr. President on Development and Employment Generation.

6. Which are the most influential theories of development, and are they compatible? Is underdevelopment an internally (domestically) or externally (internationally) induced phenomenon?

7. What constraints most hold back accelerated growth, depending on local conditions?

8. How can improvements in the role and status of women have an especially beneficial impact on development prospects?

9. What are the causes of extreme poverty, and what policies have been most effective for improving the lives of the poorest of the poor?

10. Rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations? Do large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity?

11. Why is there so much unemployment and underemployment in the developing world, especially in the cities, and why do people continue to migrate to the cities from rural areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job are very slim?

12 Wealthier societies are also healthier ones because they have more resources for improving nutrition and health care. But does better health also help spur successful development?

13. What is the impact of poor public health on the prospects for development, and what is needed to address these problems?

ANSWERS :

NO. 6 : Development theories :

1. Modernization theory :
This theory Is used to analyze the processes in which modernization in societies take place. The theory looks at which aspects of countries are beneficial and which constitute obstacles for economic development. The idea is that development assistance targeted at those particular aspects can lead to modernization of ‘traditional’ or ‘backward’ societies. Scientists from various research disciplines have contributed to modernization theory.

2. Structuralism :

This Is a development theory which focuses on structural aspects which impede the economic growth of developing countries. The unit of analysis is the transformation of a country’s economy from, mainly, a subsistence agriculture to a modern, urbanized manufacturing and service economy. Policy prescriptions resulting from structuralist thinking include major government intervention in the economy to fuel the industrial sector, known as import substitution industrialization (ISI). This structural transformation of the developing country is pursued in order to create an economy which in the end enjoys self-sustaining growth. This can only be reached by ending the reliance of the underdeveloped country on exports of primary goods (agricultural and mining products), and pursuing inward-oriented development by shielding the domestic economy from that of the developed economies. Trade with advanced economies is minimized through the erection of all kinds of trade barriers and an overvaluation of the domestic exchange rate; in this way the production of domestic substitutes of formerly imported industrial products is encouraged. The logic of the strategy rests on the infant industry argument, which states that young industries initially do not have the economies of scale and experience to be able to compete with foreign competitors and thus need to be protected until they are able to compete in the free market.[9] The Prebisch–Singer hypothesis states that over time the terms of trade for commodities deteriorate compared to those for manufactured goods, because the income elasticity of demand of manufactured goods is greater than that of primary products. If true, this would also support the ISI strategy.

Structuralists argue that the only way Third World countries can develop is through action by the state. Third world countries have to push industrialization and have to reduce their dependency on trade with the First World, and trade among themselves.

The roots of structuralism lie in South America, and particularly Chile. In 1950, Raul Prebisch went to Chile to become the first director of the Economic Commission for Latin America. In Chile, he cooperated with Celso Furtado, Aníbal Pinto, Osvaldo Sunkel, and Dudley Seers, who all became influential structuralists.

3. Dependency theory :

The theory is essentially a follow up to structuralist thinking, and shares many of its core ideas. Whereas structuralists did not consider that development would be possible at all unless a strategy of delinking and rigorous ISI was pursued, dependency thinking could allow development with external links with the developed parts of the globe. However, this kind of development is considered to be “dependent development”, i.e., it does not have an internal domestic dynamic in the developing country and thus remains highly vulnerable to the economic vagaries of the world market. Dependency thinking starts from the notion that resources flow from the ‘periphery’ of poor and underdeveloped states to a ‘core’ of wealthy countries, which leads to accumulation of wealth in the rich states at the expense of the poor states. Contrary to modernization theory, dependency theory states that not all societies progress through similar stages of development. Periphery states have unique features, structures and institutions of their own and are considered weaker with regards to the world market economy, while the developed nations have never been in this colonized position in the past. Dependency theorists argue that underdeveloped countries remain economically vulnerable unless they reduce their connections to the world market.
Dependency theory states that poor nations provide natural resources and cheap labor for developed nations, without which the developed nations could not have the standard of living which they enjoy. When underdeveloped countries try to remove the Core’s influence, the developed countries hinder their attempts to keep control. This means that poverty of developing nations is not the result of the disintegration of these countries in the world system, but because of the way in which they are integrated into this system.

4. The basic needs model :

It was introduced by the International Labour Organization in 1976, mainly in reaction to prevalent modernization- and structuralism-inspired development approaches, which were not achieving satisfactory results in terms of poverty alleviation and combating inequality in developing countries. It tried to define an absolute minimum of resources necessary for long-term physical well-being. The poverty line which follows from this, is the amount of income needed to satisfy those basic needs. The approach has been applied in the sphere of development assistance, to determine what a society needs for subsistence, and for poor population groups to rise above the poverty line. Basic needs theory does not focus on investing in economically productive activities. Basic needs can be used as an indicator of the absolute minimum an individual needs to survive.
Proponents of basic needs have argued that elimination of absolute poverty is a good way to make people active in society so that they can provide labor more easily and act as consumers and savers.[14] There have been also many critics of the basic needs approach. It would lack theoretical rigour, practical precision, be in conflict with growth promotion policies, and run the risk of leaving developing countries in permanent turmoil.

5. Neoclassical development theory has it origins in its predecessor:

classical economics. Classical economics was developed in the 18th and 19th centuries and dealt with the value of products and on which production factors it depends. Early contributors to this theory are Adam Smith and David Ricardo. Classical economists argued – as do the neoclassical ones – in favor of the free market, and against government intervention in those markets. The ‘invisible hand’ of Adam Smith makes sure that free trade will ultimately benefit all of society. John Maynard Keynes was a very influential classical economist as well, having written his General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money in 1936.

Neoclassical development theory became influential towards the end of the 1970s, fired by the election of Margaret Thatcher in the UK and Ronald Reagan in the USA. Also, the World Bank shifted from its Basic Needs approach to a neoclassical approach in 1980. From the beginning of the 1980s, neoclassical development theory really began to roll out.

6. Postdevelopment theory is a school of thought which questions the idea of national economic development altogether.

According to postdevelopment scholars, the goal of improving living standards leans on arbitrary claims as to the desirability and possibility of that goal. Postdevelopment theory arose in the 1980s and 1990s.

According to postdevelopment theorists, the idea of development is just a ‘mental structure’ (Wolfgang Sachs) which has resulted in a hierarchy of developed and underdeveloped nations, of which the underdeveloped nations desire to be like developed nations.[15] Development thinking has been dominated by the West and is very ethnocentric, according to Sachs. The Western lifestyle may neither be a realistic nor a desirable goal for the world’s population, postdevelopment theorists argue. Development is being seen as a loss of a country’s own culture, people’s perception of themselves and modes of life. According to Majid Rahnema, another leading postdevelopment scholar, things like notions of poverty are very culturally embedded and can differ a lot among cultures. The institutes which voice the concern over underdevelopment are very Western-oriented, and postdevelopment calls for a broader cultural involvement in development thinking.

Postdevelopment proposes a vision of society which removes itself from the ideas which currently dominate it. According to Arturo Escobar, postdevelopment is interested instead in local culture and knowledge, a critical view against established sciences and the promotion of local grassroots movements. Also, postdevelopment argues for structural change in order to reach solidarity, reciprocity, and a larger involvement of traditional knowledge.

II. Development theories are compatible because they involve one another in other to achieve the desired objectives.

III. Development is externally induced phenomena :

Underdevelopment is viewed as an externally-induced process which is perpetuated by a small but powerful domestic elite who form an alliance with the international capitalist system. The “development of underdevelopment” is therefore systemic and path-dependent.

NO. 7 Constraints to accelerated growth :

1. Lack of interaction between the government and society:

The problem is standing in the first row, among other basic economic problems facing Nigeria. The government will not be able to manage its economic, political, and social affairs without fostering interaction between it and the private sector and state civil society. Therefore, the government should include processes and mechanisms for citizens and groups to articulate their interests, mediate their differences, and work together.
Good leadership will provide an enabling environment for people to enjoy quality governance and justice. Good governance starts with us; we are also responsible for this situation in the country.

2. Corruption :

Corruption is a global menace, but Nigeria suffers most of all. People are starting to see that this nation has a corrupt culture. For many years, Nigeria has earned a considerable sum of money from the rock-tar, which has gone down the cesspool that was created by corruption.
Being the oil giant, which runs on the grease of politics, Nigeria could be characterized as a wealthy nation staying afloat on oil. However, the problem is that money from oil does not flow to the people.
The top public officials are wealthy because they hide behind the falsehood that public money belongs to no one. The national news is full of information on how public officials are buying million-dollar mansions and accumulating stolen public funds in financial establishments abroad.

3. Macroeconomy :

The lack of consistency and the politicians’ greed are among the causes of the hemorrhage in the economy. Every administration, which comes on board, sets up a new policy initiative instead of working on the previous one. Consequently, Nigeria has a series of inefficient and poorly executed policies.
In 2003, the federal government, under the administration of President Olusegun Obasanjo established the National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDS).
This programme headed by the former CBN governor, Prof Charles Soludo, was aimed towards sustainable growth and poverty reduction in the country. However, the programme failed to reach its objective.
The late administration of Umaru Musa Yar’adua discarded the needs of the people. His administration created a plan to convert Nigeria into one of the top 20 biggest global economies by 2020.

So, this program, which now seems to be dead, has gulped a considerable sum of money, which could have been used to solve some of the political and social-economic challenges facing Nigeria at the time.

4. Poor human development :

In general, human resources play a significant role in the success or failure of any nation or organization. Most of the problems facing the Nigerian economy reflect the bad quality of the nation’s economic health and human development.
This is a situation that has been abandoned for many years. The problems facing educational institutions directly influence the issues in the country’s economy. The situation will continue to be terrible if the nation remains on the same undeveloped level as it is now.

5. Nature of the market :

A lack of authentic competition in the system is among the problems facing the economy. Market forces guide actual capitalistic economics. The self-regulating character of the market defines where one works and lives, how much one earns, and what he/she can buy.
By the way, each economy needs some form of government interference. But we are not talking about a monopoly. Good market governance must work hand in hand with healthy competition. Unfortunately, Nigeria is not among the countries where these two exist in one dimension. In Nigeria, the federal government has a valid monopoly of setting the price of products and other services and goods. In 2016, the federal government randomly increased the cost of fuel without paying attention to the negative distributive effects on the Nigerian economy. Although in the early part of 2020, the price of petroleum was reduced.

6. Education and university systems :
These days, corruption has also spread to the Nigerian educational system, especially in universities. Professors are used to taking money from students in exchange for good marks.
Some students even say that they have to bribe university executives to have their exam results submitted and compiled for the National Youth Service Corps.
Not too long ago at the Rivers State University, a renowned professor was sacked for extorting money from his students to improve their grades. This is a true reflection of the state of things in most universities across the country today.

The higher institutions and universities in this country are not in shape. The facilities that are needed to adequately teach students so that they can be useful to companies after graduation are missing. Too much theory in our educational institutions and a total lack of practice is a big issue.

7. Environment and health issues :

The health and environmental standards of the country are in deplorable condition. In 2015, Amnesty International announced that Nigeria experiences hundreds of oil spills annually in the Niger Delta, mainly because of sabotage, pipe erosion, and uncaring attitude by oil firms. This is also responsible for the hike in oil prices.
Oil spills wilt the soil nutrients and other essential elements. This weakening can damage the communities that farm and fish in the Niger Delta and the general economy.
Litters and waste products are strewn all over the streets and roads in Nigeria. Improperly disposed rubbish promotes the spread of diseases, and this will end up affecting the Nigerian economy.
Another main problem facing the country’s economy is the health issue. People suffer from a lack of medicines and inexperienced doctors with bad education. What is more, corruption abounds in this area? In our country, if you have no money, you will not get proper treatment.

N0. 8

Women development impact on economy :

Economic empowerment is the capacity of women and men to participate in, contribute to and benefit from growth processes in ways that recognise the value of their contributions, respect their dignity and make it possible to negotiate a fairer distribution of the benefits of growth.

1. Economic empowerment increases women’s access to economic resources and opportunities including jobs, financial services, property and other productive assets, skills development and market information.

2. Women’s economic empowerment is a prerequisite for sustainable development and for achieving the Millennium Development:

GoalsAnd economic empowerment is also a right. There is no quick fix: women’s economic empowerment takes sound public policies, a holistic approach and long-term commitment from all development actors. Donors can also increase their investment.

3. Economically empowered women foster a sense of identity :

In Moldova, a country that gained independence only a generation ago and still struggles with its place in a complex geopolitical environment, citizens are striving to develop locally-made products that could reach similar renown and serve as points of collective pride. Empowering women-led and women-founded enterprises in the apparel sector has helped Moldova take a step in that direction. Joining together under the brand Din Inima: Branduri de Moldova (From the Heart: Brands of Moldova), women entrepreneurs have taken Moldovan-made apparel from a low-cost and low-quality necessity into a runway-worthy product, visibly increasing consumer loyalty and pride in locally-made apparel. Clothing will, of course, not single-handedly strengthen national identity, but the apparel sector’s success has helped foster a sense of national pride and cohesion. Aspiring entrepreneurs and artisans now have a model to draw from as they seek to make a name for Moldovan products globally.

4. Economically empowered women, with a strong sense of community, can also be an important piece of the puzzle to countering violent extremism :
In a place like the Pankisi Gorge area of Georgia, inhabited largely by minority ethnic groups, creating economic opportunity for women allows them to pass on values of inter-ethnic trust and community identity to their children, laying the foundation for the development of a more resilient and stable community.

5. Economically empowered women serve as climate-change-adaptation champions:

Adapting to climate change requires a willingness to do things differently than they have been done before and an ability to forego short-term gains in favor of long-term ones. In Morocco, women entrepreneurs have demonstrated these traits, recognizing success in their ventures and serving as climate change champions. When soil degradation and water scarcity made it increasingly difficult to make a living in Moroccan agricultural communities, Moroccan women spearheaded shifts in agricultural practices. Women producers switched from growing water-intensive traditional crops to less water-intensive medicinal and aromatic plants; they also began using renewable energy sources. The women are now securing a more sustainable income stream for their families and preventing further desertification through more efficient use of resources. Their entrepreneurial ability to adapt has allowed these women to help their families and help the planet.

6. Economically empowered women shift gender norms :

It’s human nature: the first time we see something we deem odd, we stop, stare, and gossip about it to our neighbors. The second time we see it, we shake our head and sigh. The third time, we simply shrug our shoulders and move on; what was once odd has become normal. In Bangladesh’s staunchly patriarchal society, historically, women have been discouraged from working outside of the home. But, women pioneers in the dairy sector are now taking on roles such as mobile input providers and artificial inseminators, which is contributing to a shift in gender norms. Women working in these positions have improved daily milk production, increased household incomes, earned women respect for their technical competence, and begun normalizing women’s work outside the home.

7. Economically empowered women contribute to better health and nutrition outcomes :

Increasing women’s incomes improves food security for children, by increasing the quantity, diversity, and nutrition value of food consumed in households. The same principle applies for women’s and children’s health; in numerous development contexts, a woman will have a hard time taking a day off and travelling to a distant clinic for services while her overwhelming concern remains how to feed her children. When a woman’s livelihood becomes stable because she learns to grow a more profitable crop or obtains financing to expand her business from a local village savings and lending association, she is able to afford more diverse, nutritious foods and take time off of work to seek health care for herself and for her family.
This week, as we continue to explore the meaning of economic empowerment, I am reminded of a woman who grows flowers in western Georgia. Combining her horticultural skills with business acumen, she ingeniously leveraged existing transportation networks, societal trust, and established relationships to grow her business, including using the ubiquitous marshrutka (public minibus) network to distribute fresh flowers around the region. Her bravery and ingenuity, and the bravery and ingenuity of all other women entrepreneurs, are an inspiration. Much progress remains to be made in the years to come, but it’s certain that supporting women such as these in their endeavors is not only the right thing to do – it’s the smart thing to do.

NO. 9

Causes of extreme poverty :

1. Government Corruption :

Since its founding, government corruption has plagued Nigeria. This corruption is one of the major causes of poverty in Nigeria. Government officials often take payments from oil companies that are supposed to go into public trusts—payments that can often total more than $1 billion—and instead siphon that money into their own personal bank accounts.
When government officials engage in this kind of corruption, the poor and underserved populations within Nigeria are inevitably hurt. If these large sums of money stopped going into government officials’ pockets, the Nigerian government could use that money to build up the country’s infrastructure—electricity, roads, running water and more.

2. Lack of Economic Infrastructure :
An infrastructure that supports economic growth at every level is essential to pull people out of poverty. In Nigeria, economic infrastructure includes things like access to micro-credit that help farmers invest in their crops and entrepreneurs lift their businesses off the ground. Micro-credit is an especially important tool for Nigerian women working to escape poverty.
Female entrepreneurship and autonomy can provide financial stability to entire families and, by extension, larger communities. Another one of the main causes of poverty in Nigeria is the simple fact that many Nigerians, especially in rural communities, do not have the means to escape their circumstances. Setting up economic structures that empower Nigerian people is vital to combating poverty within the country.

3. Poor Access to Education :

Economic infrastructure is not the only infrastructure that is lacking in Nigeria. Currently, a lack of a robust educational system underserves many of the poorest Nigerians. 10.5 million Nigerian children do not attend school at all, and 60% of those children are girls.
These problems are especially profound in the northern, more rural parts of Nigeria. Terrorist groups such as Boko Haram that vilify Western education further exasperate the situation. Education gives many the skills they need to enter the workforce and escape impoverishment, and the lack of educational opportunity is one of the truly devastating causes of poverty in Nigeria.

4. Poor Access to Healthcare :

Nigeria might be the most populous country in Africa, but they are running low on healthcare professionals. The current ratio of nurses, midwives and doctors to patients is 1.95 to 1,000.
With such a low density of medical care available, many people in Nigeria either go completely without medical care or without enough medical care. But sickness is costly, and oftentimes can trap people into never-ending cycles of poverty. Improving Nigerians’ access to healthcare is an essential step to reduce the amount of poverty in Nigeria.
At the surface, these problems can seem daunting and unsolvable. But the first step to crafting sustainable solutions is understanding the contours of the problem. By understanding the causes of poverty in Nigeria, organizations like UNICEF and WHO have started various initiatives to strengthen the economic, education, and health care infrastructure in Nigeria, as well as reduce government corruption.
Working hand in hand with international partners, Nigeria is continuously demonstrating its commitment to crafting a better future for its impoverished citizens.
policies for improving the lives of the poor
1. Sustained economic growth
The argument is that promoting economic growth increases total income in society, creating more jobs and income which could be redistributed. In the past 100 years, economic growth has been a major factor in reducing the levels of poverty which were seen in pre-war Britain and the US. However, it is not necessarily the case that income and wealth will trickle down to the poorest. There is a concern that economic growth could widen relative poverty because it benefits the highly skilled and wealthy classes more than those at the bottom. See: Inequality and economic growth
2. Reduce Unemployment
Unemployment is a major cause of poverty because the unemployed have little income, relying on state benefits. Unemployment can be reduced through both supply-side policies, such as free training schemes for those who are structurally unemployed.
Poverty and unemployment are often geographical problems, with depressed areas seeing higher levels of poverty. Policies to overcome geographical poverty could include government subsidies for firms to set up in depressed areas. Also building better infrastructure (transport and communication) in depressed areas can provide an economic stimulus to create new jobs.
3. Progressive Taxes
Increasing progressive taxes, such as the higher rate of income tax from 40% to 50%, will take more income from those on high-income levels. This enables cuts in regressive taxes (e.g. VAT/Sales tax) and increased welfare benefits which help increase the income of the poor. This can be an effective way to reduce relative poverty.
NO. 10
large family does not make economic sense for the following reasons :
A large family size will bring about overuse of public facilities. It will also increase government expenses on the provision of amenities. It can bring about overuse of land resources which will definitely affect the economy of the nation. It brings about increase in crime rate because of care for a large population.
The size of a large family affects the national economy in the following ways:
1.A large family size will spend most of the income on food. Therefore it will affect the savings of that family. When savings is affected, it will reduce investments.
2.A large family size will bring about overuse of public facilities.
3.It will also increase government expenses on the provision of amenities.
4.It can bring about overuse of land resources which will definitely affect the economy of the nation.
5.It brings about increase in crime rate because of care for a large population
NO. 11
Reasons for much unemployment and underemployment in the developing world :
1. Lack of the Stock of Physical Capital :
The major cause of unemployment and underemployment in underdeveloped countries like India is the deficiency of the stock of capitaI in relation to the needs of the growing labour force. In the modern world, man by himself can hardly produce anything. Even the primitive man needed some elementary tools like the bow and arrow to engage in hunting for the earning of his livelihood.
With the growth of technology and specialisation, he needs much more capital with which to engage in the productive activity. If he is an agriculturist, he needs a piece of land and also a plough, a pair of oxen, seeds and some foodgrains and other necessities of life to sustain himself during the period of sowing to the reaping of the harvest. In the industrial sector, he needs factories to work in and machines to work with. All these aids to production belong to the community’s stock of capital.
2. Use of Capital Intensive :
An important factor responsible for slow growth of employment has been the use of capital-intensive techniques of production, even in consumer goods indpstries where alternative labour-intensive techniques are available. Even before 1991, under the industrial policy resolution 1956, the development of consumer goods industries were left open for the private sector.
However, private sector prefers to invest in highly capital-intensive plants and equipment on the basis of technology developed in labour- scarce western countries. It is argued by them the alternative labour-intensive techniques have low productivity and low-surplus-generating capacity. However, the important reason for the use of capital-intensive techniques has been the availability of cheap capital.
3. Inequitable Distribution of Land :
Another cause of unemployment prevailing in the developing countries like India is inequitable distribution of land so that many agricultural households have no adequate access to land which is an important asset for agricultural production and employment.
4. Rigid Protective Labour Legislation :
Another reason for the slow growth of employment in the organised sector has been the existence of unduly rigid protective labour legislation which makes it very difficult to retrench a worker who has been employed for 240 days. Labour-legislation is so much rigid that it is even difficult to close down the unit and quit the industry. Thus, this excessively protective labour-legislation induces private entrepreneurs to prefer the maximum use of capital in place of labour.
5. Neglect of the Role of Agriculture in Employment Generation :
An important factor responsible for slow growth of employment opportunities is the neglect of agriculture for generating employment opportunities. The general perception, as existed in the first three five year plans in India (1951-65) as well as in the theoretical models of growth for dualistic economies such as Lewis “Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labour” was that agriculture already contained surplus labour and it was required to withdraw this surplus labour from agriculture and employ them in the modern industrial sector. By the mid-sixties it was realised that not to speak of employing new entrains to the labour force year after year, the modern industrial sector could not absorb productivity even a fraction of the then existing unemployed persons in the foreseeable feature.
II. Why people migrate to cities :
1. Socio-cultural issues where people are forced to migrate to avoid numerous social problems at their places of origin.
2 .Poor infrastructural development and lack of basic amenities.
3 .Search for better economic opportunities such as jobs.
4 .Accessibility and ease of transportation and communication has also been noted to facilitate rural-urban migration.
5 .The extension of road network from major towns to the peripheral urban and rural areas that resulted in the decrease in transportation cost and improved communication systems.

N0. 12
Yes, better health spur successful development.
Because, in instrumental terms, health impacts economic growth in a number of ways. For example, it reduces production losses due to worker illness, it increases the productivity of adult as a result of better nutrition, and it lowers absenteeism rates and improves learning among school children.

1. It increase life expectancy.

2. Higher productivity.

3. Improved quality of human life.

4. Increase in labour force.

5. Enhanced human capital development.

N0. 13

Impact of poor public health on development :

Poor health can limit one’s ability to work, reduce economic opportunities, inhibit educational attainment, and lead to medical debt and bankruptcy.

1. Reduces labour force.

2. Decrease in quality of human life to contributes to economic development.

3. Decrease in productivity.

4. Reduces life expectancy.

5. Decrease in human capital development.

II. Solutions to these problems :
1. Social determinants of health
2. Living conditions. …
3. Urban planning. …
4. Revival of rural infrastructure and livelihood. …
5. Education. …
6. Nutrition and early child development. …
7. Social security measures. …
8. Food security measures. …

NAME: OYIBE, EBERE IZUINYA
REG. NUMBER: 218/245131
DEPARTMENT : ECONOMICS
COURSE: ECO 361

1. What are the most influential theories of development and are they compatible?
i. Theory of modernization,
ii. Theory of dependency,
iii. Theory of world system, and
iv. Theory of globalization.
No. These theories are not compatible because they all have different views about development. Thus, modernization posited that the third world countries must admit the development processes of the modern society failing to recognize the fact that one system cannot be adopted by all countries due to the diverse historical and cultural background of the countries.
Secondly, dependency theory argued that the persistent increment in industrialization in the developed countries rather equally subject poor to underdevelopment as a result of the economic surplus of the poor countries being exploited by developed countries.
Thirdly, theory of world system is of the view that there are worldwide conditions
that operate as determinant forces especially for small and underdeveloped
nations, and that the nation-state level of analysis is no longer the only useful
category for studying development conditions, particularly in Third World
countries. Those factors which had the greatest impact on the internal
development of small countries were the new global systems of
communications, the new world trade mechanisms, the international financial
system, and the transference of knowledge and military links.
Lastly, the theory of globalization is of the view that: cultural factors are the

determinant aspect in every society. Second, it is not important, under current
world conditions to use the nation-state as the unit of analysis, since global
communications and international ties are making this category less useful.
Third, with more standardization in technological advances, more and more
social sectors will be able to connect themselves with other groups around the
world. This situation will involve the dominant and non-dominant groups from
1b. Is underdevelopment an internally ( domestically) or externally (internationally) induced phenomenon?
Underdevelopment is an internally induced phenomenon because it is is situation characterized by:
i. Low literacy,
ii. Low productivity,
iii. Low income,
iv. Low standard of living,
v. Widespread poverty,etc.
2. What constraints most hold back accelerated growth depending on local conditions.
Social obstacles such as:
i. Literacy. The literacy rate is low in developing countries. As a result, the rate of economic growth is reduced.
ii. Joint family system. This a situation whereby all members of the family live together. In this case, only a few of the family members work while the rest do nothing.
3. How can improvement in the role and status of women have an especially beneficial impact on development prospects?
Improvement in the role and status of women will:
i. Expand job opportunities,
ii. Increase GDP as government will generate more revenue from the taxes they pay.
iii. It will also increase the literacy level of the economy.
iv. It increases economic productivity and efficiency.
4. What are the causes of extreme poverty?
The causes of extreme poverty are:
i. POOR HEALTH CARE SYSTEMS ESPECIALLY FOR MOTHERS AND CHILDREN
In countries where health systems are weak, easily preventable and treatable illnesses like malaria, diarrhea, and respiratory infections can be fatal — especially for young children. And when people must travel far distances to clinics or pay for medicine, it drains already vulnerable households of money and assets, and can tip a family from poverty into extreme poverty.
For some women, pregnancy and childbirth can be a death sentence.
ii. CONFLICT.
Conflicts and violence also leads to poverty because it makes a country and its population to live below the global poverty line.
iii. INEQUALITY AND MARGINALIZATION.
These describes the systemic barriers leaving groups of people without a voice or representation within their communities. It includes gender inequality,caste systems, and marginalization based on race or tribal affiliations, etc. Here, individuals have little or no access to the resources needed to live a full, and productive life.
iv. HUNGER, MALNUTRITION AND STUNTING:- Malnutrition and hunger is another reason why most countries in the developing world are poor. For instance,if a pregnant mother is malnourished during pregnancy, that can be passed on to her children thereby leading to wasting (low weight for height) or stunting (low height for age). Child stunting both physical and cognitive can lead to a life time impacts. Example, in Ethiopia, stunting contributes to GDP losses as high as 16%. This is because adults who were stunted as children earn less income than those who were not stunted.
v. CLIMATE CHANGE
Climate change creates hunger, whether through too little water (drought) or too much (flooding), and its effects contribute to the cycle of poverty in several other ways including disproportionately affecting women, creating refugees, and even influencing conflict. One World Bank estimates that climate change has the power to push more than 100 million people into poverty over the next decade.
vi. LACK OF EDUCATION
Not every person without an education is living in extreme poverty. But most of the extremely poor don’t have an education. There are many barriers to education around the world, including a lack of money for uniforms and books, a bias against girls’ education, unwillingness to go to school, etc.

But education is often referred to as the great equalizer, because it can open the door to jobs and other resources and skills that a family needs to not just survive, but thrive. UNESCO estimates that 171 million people could be lifted out of extreme poverty if they left school with basic reading skills. Poverty threatens education, but education can also help end poverty.

vii. POOR PUBLIC WORKS AND INFRASTRUCTURE
Imagine that you have to go to work, but there are no roads to get you there. Or heavy rains have flooded your route and made it impossible to travel. A lack of infrastructure — from roads, bridges, and wells, to cables for light, cell phones, and internet — can isolate communities living in rural areas. Living off the grid often means living without the ability to go to school, work, or the market to buy and sell goods. Traveling further distances to access basic services not only takes time, it costs money, keeping families in poverty.

Isolation limits opportunity. Without opportunity, many find it difficult, if not impossible, to escape extreme poverty.

viii. LACK OF GOVERNMENT SUPPORT
Many people living in the United States are familiar with social welfare programs that people can access if they need healthcare or food assistance. But not every government can provide this type of help to its citizens — and without that safety net, there’s nothing to stop vulnerable families from backsliding further into extreme poverty. Ineffective governments also contribute to several of the other causes of extreme poverty mentioned above, as they are unable to provide necessary infrastructure or healthcare, or ensure the safety and security of their citizens in the event of conflict.

ix. LACK OF JOBS OR LIVELIHOODS
This might seem like a no-brainer: Without a job or a livelihood, people will face poverty. Dwindling access to productive land (often due to conflict, overpopulation, or climate change) and overexploitation of resources like fish or minerals puts increasing pressure on many traditional livelihoods. In the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) for example, most of the population lives in rural communities where natural resources have been plundered over centuries of colonial rule — while conflict over land has forced people away from their source of income and food. Now, more than half of the country lives in extreme poverty.

x. LACK OF RESERVES
All of the above risk factors — from conflict to climate change or even a family illness — can be weathered if a family or community has reserves in place. Cash savings and loans can offset unemployment due to conflict or illness. Proper food storage systems can help if a drought or natural disaster ruins a harvest.

People living in extreme poverty usually don’t have these means available. This means that, when a risk turns into a disaster, they turn to negative coping mechanisms, including pulling children out of school to work (or even marry), and selling off assets to buy food. That can help a family make it through one bad season, but not another. For communities constantly facing climate extremes or prolonged conflict, the repeated shocks can send a family reeling into extreme poverty and prevent them from ever recovering.

4b. What policies have been most effective for improving the lives of the poorest of the poor?
5. Rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations?
Rapid growth has outstripped increases in food production, and population pressure has led to the overuse of arable land and its destruction. Rapid growth has also hampered economic development and caused massive unemployment in developing nations
5b. Do large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity?
No.
6. Why is there so much underemployment and underdevelopment in the developing world, especially in the cities?
i. Education and training
ii. Demand for labour mismatch supply
iii. The effects of the 2008/2009 global recession.
iv. General lack of interest for entrepreneurship.
v. Slow economic growth.

6b. Why do people continue to migrate to the cities from rural to urban areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job are very slim?
i. Desire for upper mobility
ii. Shocks that makes subsistence farming difficult
iii. Insecure rural livelihoods, etc.

7. Wealthier societies are also healthier ones because they have resources for improving nutrition and health care. But does better health also spur development?
Yes
8. What is the impact of poor public health on the prospects for development?

i. Tobacco-related effects
Tobacco also leads to serious public health effects.

Tobacco is the most dangerous drug in terms of fatalities per year.

Moreover, tobacco also leads to high social costs since the treatment of lung diseases can be quite costly and these costs are often borne by the taxpayer through health insurance schemes.

Therefore, the use of tobacco can lead to several private as well as public health issues.

ii. Drug-related effects
Illegal drugs can also cause several adverse health conditions.
This may come in the form of serious diseases like HIV or also from overdoses.
Although illegal drugs cause significantly fewer fatalities per year compared to legal drugs like alcohol or tobacco, illegal drugs still pose serious public health issues since people addicted to these substances are likely to suffer in a dramatic manner.

iii. Obesity
Obesity is a major public health issue in our current society.This is due to the fact that people mainly sit around the whole day, starring at their computer and waiting until the day is over and they can go home and watch their favorite serious on their couch.Moreover, many people eat quite unhealthily.This combination of low levels of exercise and unhealthy food leads to obesity for many people.Obesity in turn can lead to serious health conditions and affect people not only physically, but also mentally.

iv. Malnutrition
Malnutrition is a huge public health issue, especially in poor developing countries. In these countries, people usually have many children.However, many children need many resources in order to grow healthy.Poor families are often not able to provide enough food and minerals to their children, which results in malnutrition.Malnutrition can in turn lead to a weak immune system and may even lead to death.

v. Mental issues
Public health issues can also include mental issues.Since we are affected by so many impressions today, our brains may not be able to deal with all of them.There are many people who report that they feel burned out.The number of people suffering from mental illness increased drastically over the last decades.If our society and our value system continue to value excessive mental work, chances are that the number of mentally sick people will continue to increase in the future.

vi. Air pollution
Air pollution can also be regarded as public health issue since it contributes to all kinds of diseases.These diseases are likely to lead to high health costs in return which are often borne by the taxpayer through health insurance schemes.

vii. Global warming
Global warming is another issue that can be caused by public health issues.A major factor for global warming is the emission of greenhouse gases.These gases are emitted in industrial processes, but also through the daily use of our cars.

viii. Lack of access to basic care
Many people worldwide lack access to basic care.This includes basic things like sufficient food and drinks but also includes basic supply with healthcare items.The lack of access to these basic items is usually due to the fact that many people around the world are quite poor and are not able to afford these basic daily life items.

ix. Non-communicable diseases and consumption behavior.
Non-communicable diseases are diseases that are not transmissible directly from one person to another.Examples for those kinds of diseases are autoimmune diseases, heart attacks or diabetes.These diseases are often related to our consumption behavior.For example, type 2 diabetes is often caused by the consumption of excessive amounts of sugar and a low level of physical activity.Non-communicable diseases cause serious health conditions for a large number of people worldwide.
x. Antimicrobial resistance
In mainstream medicine, antibiotics are often prescribed in an excessive way.However, the excessive use of antibiotics can lead to antimicrobial resistance.This means that certain bacteria become resistant to antibiotics.This in turn may lead to an increase in fatalities since antibiotics will no longer work to cure certain diseases.
xi. Pandemics
Some public health issues may also lead to pandemics.Pandemics are likely to spread in regions where living and health conditions are quite basic.Poor people will not be able to fight these pandemics in a sufficient way, which may lead to the death of many people worldwide.

xii. HIV
HIV is a big problem worldwide. HIV is often transmitted through sexual intercourse.HIV is a serious disease that takes away the lives of many people.It is especially harmful in countries which do not have proper HIV treatment.These people will usually have quite low life expectancies.Thus, HIV can be regarded as a serious public health issue.It is often caused by a lack of education or the unwillingness to use contraceptives.

xiii. Dengue fever
Dengue fever is transmitted by mosquitos. It is a severe disease that causes many fatalities per year.Especially in poor countries with low healthcare standards, Dengue fever has extreme adverse impacts.
8b. What is needed to address these problems?

i. Higher taxes on alcohol and tobacco
ii. Improve health standards
iii. Improve research
iv. Transnational support
v. Reduction in consumption
vi. Recycle and reuse
vii. Reduce corruptive actions
viii. Promote vaccinations
ix. Education and research

UGWUEKE LILIAN OGECHUKWU
LIBRARY&INFORMATION SCIENCE
2018/SD/37425
THIRD YEAR

ASSIGNMENT 361
6.WHICH ARE THE MOST INFLUENTIAL THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT, AND ARE THEY COMPATIBLE? IS UNDERDEVELOPMENT AN INTERNALLY (DOMESTICALLY) OR EXTERNALLY (INTERNATIONALLY)INDUCED PHENOMENON?

Development theory is a collection of theories about how desirable change in society is best achieved.such theories draw on a variety of social science disciplines and approaches.in this article,multiple draw are discussed,as are recent developments with regard to these theories.The most influential and compatible development theories are development theories of structuralism and dependency theory.Development theories of structuralism,this is a development theory which focuses on structural aspects which impede the economic growth of developing countries.Dependency theory is essential a follow up to structuralism thinking,and share many of its core ideas.Whereas structuralism did not consider that development would be possible at all unless a strategy of delinking and rigorous was pursued,dependency thinking could allow development with external links with the developed parts of the globe.
Underdevelopment per according to Walter Rodney is primarily made of two components,a comparative aspect as well the relationship of exploitation:namely,the exploitation of one country by another and so is externally induced.

7.WHAT CONSTRAINTS MOST HOLD BACK ACCELERATED GROWTH,DEPENDING ON LOCAL CONDITIONS?

The constraints to accelerated growth include:
1.Inefficiencies with the micro-economy
2.Imbalances in the structure of the economy
3.A rapidly growing or declining population
4.Lack of financial capital
5.Lack of human capital
6.Poor governance and corruption
7.Missing market

8.How CAN IMPROVEMENTS IN THE ROLE AND STATUS Of WOMEN HAVE AN ESPECIALLY BENEFICIAL IMPACT ON DEVELOPMENT PROSPECTS?

The empowered women turn out to be agent of their progress,capable to work out choices to set their own program and be strong sufficient to confront their subsidiary location in the society.Though women comprise half of world’s population up till now they are the biggest group which is excluded from the benefits of social and economic development.Women constitute a strong labour force which wants to be mobilized and confident to make an efficient involvement to the development method
Empowering women is essential to health and social development,communities and countries. When women are living safe,fulfilled and productive lives,they can reach their full potential.Empowering women are key to economic growth,stability,and social transformation.Improving the role and status of women through education and entrepreneurship reduces poverty by increasing their employability and enabling them to provide for their families and contribute to the economic development of their communities.

9.WHAT ARE THE CAUSES OF EXTREME POVERTY, AND WHAT POLICIES HAVE BEEN MOST EFFECTIVE FOR IMPROVING THE LIVES OF THE POOREST OF THE POOR?

1.Inadequate access to clean water and nutritious food
2.Little or no access to livelihood or job
3.Conflict
4.Poor education
5.Lack of infrastructure
6.Limited capacity of the government
Macroeconomic policies are suitable and necessary for growth.Macroeconomic stability by itself,however,does not ensure high rates of economic growth.In most cases,sustained high rates of growth also depend upon key structural measures,such as regulatory reform,privatization,civil service reform,improved governance,trade liberalization,and banking sector reform

10.RAPID POPULATION GROWTH THREATENING THE ECONOMIC PROGRESS OF DEVELOPING NATIONS?DO LARGE FAMILIES MAKE ECONOMIC SENSE IN AN ENVIRONMENT OF WIDESPREAD POVERTY FINANCIAL INSECURITY?
Rapid population growth means higher dependency burden which forces the young population to work to supplement the family income.It also creates social pressures on the government to spend more on the welfare of the people in order to maintain a minimum standard of living.In under developed countries,rapid growth of population diminishes the availability of capital per head which reduces the productivity of the labour force.Their income,as a consequence,is reduced and their capacity to save is diminished which,in turn,adversely affects capital formation.Large families grow great sense of reasoning as new skills are introduced,new financial sources created and new budgeting activated.

11.WHY IS THERE SO MUCH UNEMPLOYMENT AND UNDEREMPLOYMENT IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD,ESPECIALLY IN THE CITIES,AND WHY DO PEOPLE CONTINUE TO MIGRATE TO THE CITIES FROM RURAL AREAS EVEN WHEN THEIR CHANCES OF FINDING A COVENTIONAL JOB ARE VERY SLIM?

Causes of Underemployment
1.Business Cycle
2.Supply of workers are greater than demand
3.Technological changes

The following are the main causes of unemployment
1.Caste system
2.Slow economic growth
3.increase population
4.Agriculture is a seasonal occupation
5.joint family system
6.Fall of small industries

12.WEALTHIER SOCIETIES ARE ALSO HEALTHIER ONES BECAUSE THEY HAVE MORE RESOURCES FOR IMPROVING NUTRITION AND HEALTH CARE.BUT DOES BETTER HEALTH ALSO HELP SPUR SUCCESSFUL DEVELOPMENT?

Nutrition and health are the fundamental conditions for human welfare.Recently,food sufficiency and easy access to food are considered as a basic human right.Good nutrition is an investment in human and social capital;Solid establishment of human capital is a key determinant of household and community,
Which in turn builds a basis for development.
Better nutrition is associated with faster economic growth in the long run.The magnitude of this effect,taken at the current sample mean,is about 0.5 percentage point for a 500 kcal/day increase in dietary energy supply.
Since nutrition and health contributes for economic growth in the long run,any policies to improve nutritional status have a long-term provision.Corollary to this,a country,which implements this type of policies,must commit to it in the long run.

13.WHAT IS THE IMPACT OF POOR PUBLIC HEALTH ON THE PROPECTS FOR DEVELOPMENT, & WHAT IS NEEDED TO ADDRESS THESE PROBLEMS?

Poor public health affects economic development primarily via total factor productvity,not as an additional factor of production or by affecting the productivity of one other factor of production only.If so,then including health as direct determinant of growth is conceptually inaccurate since health is likely to affect output growth indirectly via total factor productivity.
However,a reversal of this relationship,with poor health itself contributing to poverty and underemployment,has generally not been quantified at a macroeconomic level until relatively recently.We have tried to improve on the existing literature by looking at three specific aspects of poor health rather than the aggregate measure of life expectancy and by directly estimating the effect of health on total factor productivity,rather than economic growth
With a clear link between health and productivity emerging,the report calls for a global commitment to tackle health issues.This commitment must come from low income countries themselves,but also increased financial commitments from donor countries will be needed.it would appear that only increased and re-prioritized investment in health care,on a global scale,will release the developing world from the vicious cycle that links poor health and poverty.

REG NO: 2018/242297
DEPARTMENT: ECONOMICS
COURSE: ECO 361(DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS I)

6. Which are the most influential theories of development, and are they compatible? Is underdevelopment an internally (domestically) or externally (internationally) induced phenomenon?

Development economics seeks to understand and shape macro and microeconomic policies in order to lift poor countries out of poverty. Four common theories of development economics include mercantilism, nationalism, the linear stages of growth model, and structural-change theory.

Mercantilism:
Mercantilism  is thought to be one of the earliest forms of development economics that created practices to promote the success of a nation. It was a dominant economic theory practiced in Europe from the 16th to the 18th centuries. The theory promoted augmenting state power by lowering exposure to rival national powers.
Like political absolutism and absolute monarchies, mercantilism promoted government regulation by prohibiting colonies from transacting with other nations.
Mercantilism monopolized markets with staple ports and banned gold and silver exports. It believed the higher the supply of gold and silver, the more wealthy it would be. In general, it sought a trade surplus (exports greater than imports), did not allow the use of foreign ships for trade, and it optimized the use of domestic resources.

Economic Nationalism:
Economic nationalism reflects policies that focus on domestic control of capital formation the economy, and labor, using tariffs or other barriers. It restricts the movement of capital, goods, and labor.
Economic nationalists do not generally agree with the benefits of globalization and unlimited free trade. They focus on a policy that is isolationist so that the industries within a nation are able to grow without the threat of competition from established companies in other countries.
The economy of the early United States is a prime example of economic nationalism. As a new nation, it sought to develop itself without relying so much on outside influences. It enacted measures, such as high tariffs, so its own industries would grow unimpeded.

Linear Stages of Growth Model:
The linear stages of growth model was used to revitalize the European economy after World War II.
This model states that economic growth can only stem from industrialization . The model also agrees that local institutions and social attitudes can restrict growth if these factors influence people’s savings rate and investments.
The linear stages of growth model portrays an appropriately designed addition of capital partnered with public intervention. This injection of capital and restrictions from the public sector leads to economic development and industrialization.

Structural-Change Theory:
The structural-change theory focuses on changing the overall economic structure of a nation, which aims to shift society from being a primarily agrarian one to a primarily industrial one.
For example, Russia before the communist revolution was an agrarian society. When the communists overthrew the royal family and took power, they rapidly industrialized the nation, allowing it to eventually become a superpower.
CONCLUSION:
These economic development theories are very much compatible with each other firstly because they all aim to bring about steady economic growth in underdeveloped countries and developing countries, secondly they all focus on Industrialisation as the major route to obtain development.
Knowing all these I believe that underdevelopment is an internally induced phenomenon, because countries tends to implement wrong policies that is not compatible with the kind of economy they have.

7. What constraints most hold back accelerated growth, depending on local conditions?

Development constraints
The pace of development can be slowed down, or even reversed, by various factors affecting the economy. Some of these constraints can be dealt with through economic and social policy, while others may be difficult to resolve.

The constraints on development include:

Inefficiencies within the micro-economy.
Imbalances in the structure of the economy.
A rapidly growing or declining population.
Lack of financial capital.
Lack of human capital.
Poor governance and corruption.
Missing markets.
Over-exploitation of environmental capital.
Barriers to trade.

Inefficiency
Productive inefficiency
Producers in less developed countries may not be able to produce at the lowest possible average cost. This may be because of the failure to apply technology to production, using obsolete technology, or because of the inability to achieve economies of scale. Opening up the economy to free trade may help reduce this type of inefficiency, and encourage technology transfer.

Allocative inefficiency
When developing economies remain closed to competition, when they are dominated by local monopolies, or when production is in the hands of the state, prices might not reflect the marginal cost of production. Opening up the economy to free trade, and privatisation of industry may help promote a more competitive environment, and reduce allocatively inefficiency.

X’ Inefficiency
X inefficiency can arise when there is a lack of competition in a market. It is primarily associated with inefficient management, where average cost is above its minimum. Competition is limited in many developing economies, and resources are often allocated by government. This means that inefficient management is common.

Social inefficiency
Social inefficiency exists when social costs do not equate with social benefits. This can arise when externalities are not taken into account. For example, under-spending on education creates social inefficiency. Some of these inefficiencies are the result of the economy not allowing market forces to operate, while others are the result of market failures. Negative externalities like pollution are often largely uncontrolled in less developed parts of the world, and this imposes a constraint on the sustainability of development.

Imbalances
Not all sectors of an economy are capable of growth. For some developing economies, too many scarce resources may be allocated to sectors with little growth potential. This is especially the case with the production of agriculture and commodities.

In these sectors, there is little opportunity for economic growth because the impact of real and human capital development is small, and marginal factor productivity is very low. Failure to allocate scarce resources to where they are most productive can impose a limit on development.

Population
Population is a considerable constraint on economic growth, either, and most commonly, because there is too a high rate of population growth for the country’s current resources, or because the population is growing too slowly or declining as a result of war, famine, or disease. Many economists see population growth as the single biggest issue facing developing countries. The line of argument runs as follows:

At first, the take-off phase of development and economic growth creates positive externalities from the application of science and technology to healthcare and education and this leads to a decline in the death rate, but no decline, or even an increase, in the birth rate. Over time life expectancy rises, but the age distribution remains skewed, with an increasing number of dependents in the lower age range. As a result, the number of consumers relative to producers increases.

The short-term gains from growth are quickly eroded as GDP per capita actually falls, hence, only when the birth rate falls will GDP per capita rise. In this case, there is a positive role for government in terms of encouraging a lower birth rate.

Lack of real capital
Many developing economies do not have sufficient financial capital to engage in public or private investment. There are several reasons for this, including the following:

Low growth
Growth is not sufficient to allow scarce financial resources to be freed up for non-current expenditure.

Lack of savings
A general lack of savings is often seen as the key reason why financial capital is in short supply.  High interest rates to encourage saving will, of course, deter investment.

Debts
In the case of public sector funding, spare public funds are often used to repay previous debts, so there are fewer available funds for capital investment by government. This is often called the problem of debt overhang. The recent sovereign debt crisis has highlighted the problems faced by countries with large public debts, and how such debts limit the ability of government to inject spending into a developing economy.

Crowding out
In addition, because many developing economies have large public sectors, private investment may be crowded out by public sector borrowing. This means that a government may borrow from local capital markets, if indeed they exist, which causes a relative shortage of capital and raises interest rates.

Absence of credit markets
Finally, there is an absence of credit markets in many developing economies, and this discourages both lenders and borrowers. Credit markets often fail to form because of the extremely high risks associated with lending in developing countries. This is one reason for the importance of micro-finance initiatives commonly found across India, Pakistan and some parts of Africa.

Corruption
Some developing economies suffer from corruption in many different sectors of their economies. Corruption comes in many forms, including the theft of public funds by politicians and government employees, and the theft and misuse of overseas aid. Bribery is also alleged to be a persistent threat, and tends to involve the issuing of government contracts. In some developing economies, bribery is the norm, and this seriously weakens the operation of the price mechanism.

Inadequate financial markets
Missing markets usually arise because of information failure. Because of asymmetric information lenders in credit markets may not be aware of the full creditworthiness of borrowers. This pushes up interest rates for all borrowers, even those with a good credit prospect.

Low risk individuals and firms are deterred from borrowing, and a lemons problem arises, with only high risk individuals and firms choosing to borrow. Thus, the credit market in developing economies is under-developed or completely missing, with few wishing to borrow, and with those who wish to lend expecting high loan defaults and hence charging very high interest rates.

Insurance markets
In a similar way to credit markets, insurance markets may be under-developed, with few insurers willing to accept ‘bad’ risks. Insurance charges (premiums) will be driven up, and potential entrepreneurs may be deterred from taking out insurance, or will be unwilling to take uninsured risks. The result is that new businesses may fail to develop.

The principal – agent (landlord – tenant) problem
In agriculture in particular, the principal-agent problem existing between landlord (principal) and worker (agent) creates asymmetric information and moral hazard. Workers may not bother to work hard. With low pay rates, the risks of being caught ‘shirking’ are small – the loss of pay is not a significant enough incentive to work hard and efficiently.

Absence of property rights
In many developing economies it is not always clear who owns property, especially land. Given this there is no incentive to develop the land because of the free-rider problem.

8. How can improvements in the role and status of women have an especially beneficial impact on development prospects?

When more women work, economies grow. Women’s economic empowerment boosts productivity, increases economic diversification and income equality in addition to other positive development outcomes.For example, increasing the female employment rates in OECD countries to match that of Sweden, could boost GDP by over USD 6 trillion, recognizing, however, that. growth does not automatically lead to a reduction in gender-based inequality. Conversely, it is estimated that gender gaps cost the economy some 15 percent of GDP.

Increasing women’s and girls’ educational attainment contributes to women’s economic empowerment and more inclusive economic growth. Education, upskilling and re-skilling over the life course – especially to keep pace with rapid technological and digital transformations affecting jobs—are critical for women’s and girl’s health and wellbeing, as well as their income-generation opportunities and participation in the formal labour market. Increased educational attainment accounts for about 50 per cent of the economic growth in OECD countries over the past 50 years. But, for the majority of women, significant gains in education have not translated into better labour market outcomes.

Women’s economic equality is good for business. Companies greatly benefit from increasing employment and leadership opportunities for women, which is shown to increase organizational effectiveness and growth. It is estimated that companies with three or more women in senior management functions score higher in all dimensions of organizational performance.

9. What are the causes of extreme poverty, and what policies have been most effective for improving the lives of the poorest of the poor?

A. Inadequate access to clean water and nutritious food

Currently, more than 2 billion people don’t have access to clean water at home, while over 800 million suffer from hunger. You might think that poverty causes hunger and prevents people from accessing clean water (and you would be right!), but hunger and water insecurity are also big reasons why people struggle to escape extreme poverty.

If a person doesn’t get enough food, they simply don’t have the strength and energy needed to work, while lack of access to food and clean water can also lead to preventable illnesses like diarrhea. And when people must travel far distances to clinics or spend what little money remains on medicine, it drains already vulnerable populations of money and assets, and can knock a family from poverty into extreme poverty.

Even if clean water sources are available, they’re often located far from poor, rural communities. This means that women and girls collectively spend some 200 million hours every day walking long distances to fetch water. That’s precious time that could be used working, or getting an education to help secure a job later in life.

B. Little or no access to livelihoods or jobs

This might seem a bit like a “no brainer.” Without a job or a way to make money, people will face poverty. But it’s easy to assume that if someone wants a job, they could have one. That just isn’t true, particularly in developing and rural parts of the world. Dwindling access to productive land (often due to conflict, overpopulation, or climate change), and overexploitation of resources like fish or minerals is putting increasing pressure on many traditional livelihoods. In the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) for example, most of the population lives in rural communities where natural resources have been plundered over centuries of colonialism — while conflict over land disputes has forced people from the land they relied upon for food and money. Now, more than half of the country lives in extreme poverty. While inconsistent work and low paying jobs can land a family in poverty, absolutely no work means that a family can’t get by without assistance.

C. Conflict

Conflict can cause poverty in several ways. Large scale, protracted violence that we see in places like Syria can grind society to a halt, destroy infrastructure, and cause people to flee, forcing families to sell or leave behind all their assets. In Syria, around 70% of the entire population now lives below the poverty line — this in a country where extreme poverty was once very rare. Women often bear the brunt of conflict: during periods of violence, female-headed households become very common. And because women often have difficulty getting well-paying work and are typically excluded from community decision-making, their families are particularly vulnerable.

But even small bouts of violence can have huge impacts on communities that are already struggling. For example, if farmers are worried about their crops being stolen, they won’t invest in planting. Women are particularly vulnerable in these kinds of conflicts, too, as they often become the targets of sexual violence while fetching water or working alone in the fields.

D. Inequality

There are many different types of inequality in the world, from economic to social inequalities like gender, caste systems, or tribal affiliations. But no matter the inequality, it generally means the same thing: unequal or no access to the resources needed to keep or lift a family out of poverty.

Sometimes inequalities are obvious, but in other situations, it can be subtle — for example, the voices of certain people or groups might not be heard in community meetings, meaning they don’t get a say in important decisions. Regardless, these inequalities mean that the people affected don’t have the tools they desperately need to get ahead, and for already vulnerable families, this can mean the difference between being poor or living in extreme poverty.

E. Poor education

Not every person without an education is living in extreme poverty. But most of the extremely poor don’t have an education. And why is that? There’s a lot of barriers stopping children from going to school. Many families can’t afford to send their children to school and need them to work. More still don’t see a benefit in educating girls. Education is often referred to as the great equalizer, and that’s because education can open the door to jobs and other resources and skills that a family needs to not just survive, but thrive. UNESCO estimates that 171 million people could be lifted out of extreme poverty if they left school with basic reading skills. And, with even more education, world poverty could be cut in half.

POLICIES TO ALLEVIATE POVERTY:

A. Sustained economic growth

The argument is that promoting economic growth increases total income in society, creating more jobs and income which could be redistributed. In the past 100 years, economic growth has been a major factor in reducing the levels of poverty which were seen in pre-war Britain and the US. However, it is not necessarily the case that income and wealth will trickle down to the poorest. There is a concern that economic growth could widen relative poverty because it benefits the highly skilled and wealthy classes more than those at the bottom. See: Inequality and economic growth

B. Reduce Unemployment

Unemployment is a major cause of poverty because the unemployed have little income, relying on state benefits. Unemployment can be reduced through both supply-side policies, such as free training schemes for those who are structurally unemployed.
Poverty and unemployment are often geographical problems, with depressed areas seeing higher levels of poverty. Policies to overcome geographical poverty could include government subsidies for firms to set up in depressed areas. Also building better infrastructure (transport and communication) in depressed areas can provide an economic stimulus to create new jobs.

C. Progressive Taxes
Increasing progressive taxes, such as the higher rate of income tax from 40% to 50%, will take more income from those on high-income levels. This enables cuts in regressive taxes (e.g. VAT/Sales tax) and increased welfare benefits which help increase the income of the poor. This can be an effective way to reduce relative poverty.

However, critics argue higher income taxes create a disincentive to work., leading to less output. This is because higher tax makes work less attractive and reduces the opportunity cost of leisure. Therefore people work less and enjoy more leisure. This is known as the substitution effect. Similarly higher corporation tax may discourage investment in the UK
However, this is disputed by other economists, who point out that higher tax reduces incomes and this may encourage people to work more, to maintain their income. (This is known as the income effect)
Evidence suggests that higher income tax has little incentive on the supply of labour, suggesting labour supply is relatively inelastic. However, it also depends at what level income tax is set. There is certainly a level where higher income tax will reduce incentives to work.
Other problems with increasing income tax, include tax evasion and the fact firms may adjust wages to compensate for the higher taxes.

D. Increasing benefits to the poor

Means-tested benefits involve increasing welfare benefits to those on low incomes. For example, universal tax credit, food stamps or child benefit.
5. National Minimum Wage  The government could increase the national minimum wage. This is an effective way of increasing the incomes of the low paid and therefore reducing wage inequality. A related concept is the Voluntary Living Wage – an attempt to encourage firms to pay higher wages.

In recent years, minimum wages have become more important in tackling in-paid work in both the UK and US.

In the UK, the number of workers benefitting from the minimum wage has increased from 830,000 in 1999 to 2 million in 2018.
In the US, there is a proposal to increase federal minimum wage to $15 by 2024 – a move that could see 33.5 million U.S. workers and 6.2 million workers in poverty see a rise in the minimum wage.
A potential problem of increasing the minimum wage is that it may cause unemployment because firms may not be able to afford the workers. If it does cause unemployment, poverty could worsen. However, if firms have monopsony power, then they will be able to afford higher wages. Empirical evidence suggests that we can increase minimum wages fairly significantly before the cost of falling employment and higher prices outweigh the benefit of rising wages and higher productivity. See more on raising the minimum wage

10. Rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations? Do large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity?

Yes rapid increase in population tends to affect the increase or progress in the growth and development of developing countries and No a large family does not make economic sense in an economy plagued with widespread poverty and financial insecurity.

11. Why is there so much unemployment and underemployment in the developing world, especially in the cities, and why do people continue to migrate to the cities from rural areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job are very slim?

There are many factors that influences unemployment and underemployment in the developing world there include
a. Overpopulation
b. Poor utilization of natural endowment
c. Illiteracy
d. Absence or limited number of industries

People continue to migrate to the cities from the rural area even at the risk of not finding a conventional job due to some reasons below
a. Ignorance
b. Lack of information
c. Poor orientation
d. Better infrastructure in the cities
e. Better educational systems in the cities

12 Wealthier societies are also healthier ones because they have more resources for improving nutrition and health care. But does better health also help spur successful development?

Looking at the effects that covid-19 has done to the world’s economy in general, yes a healthy nation spurs economic growth.

13. What is the impact of poor public health on the prospects for development, and what is needed to address these problems?

Poor public health, is a major cause of poverty. This is partly due to the costs of seeking health care, which include not only out-of-pocket spending on care (such as consultations, tests and medicine), but also transportation costs and any informal payments to providers. It is also due to the considerable loss of income associated with illness in developing countries, both of the breadwinner, but also of family members who may be obliged to stop working or attending school to take care of an ill relative. In addition, poor families coping with illness might be forced to sell assets to cover medical expenses, borrow at high interest rates or become indebted to the community.

Solutions to tackle poor public health
• Reducing the direct cost of care at the point of service, e.g. through reducing/abolishing user fees for the poor or expanding health insurance to the poor (including coverage, depth and breadth).

• Increasing efficiency of care to reduce total consumption of care, e.g. by limiting “irrational drug prescribing,” strengthening the referral system, or improving the quality of providers (especially at the lower level).

• Reducing inequalities in determinants of health status or health care utilization, such as reducing distance (through providing services closer to the poor), subsidizing travel costs, targeted health promotion, conditional cash transfers.

• Expanding access to care by using the private sector or public-private partnerships.

Assure an Adequate Local Public Health Infrastructure

Assuring an adequate local public health infrastructure means maintaining the basic capacities foundational to a well-functioning public health system such as data analysis and utilization; health planning; partnership development and community mobilization; policy development, analysis and decision support; communication; and public health research, evaluation and quality improvement.

Promote Healthy Communities and Healthy Behavior

Promoting healthy communities and healthy behaviors means activities that improve health in a population, such as investing in healthy families; engaging communities to change policy, systems or environments to promote positive health or prevent adverse health; providing information and education about healthy communities or population health status; and addressing issues of health equity, health disparities, and the social determinants of health.

Prevent the Spread of Communicable Disease

Preventing the spread of infectious disease means preventing diseases that are caused by infectious agents, such as by detecting acute infectious diseases, assuring the reporting of infectious diseases, preventing the transmission of disease, and implementing control measures during infectious disease outbreaks.  

Protect Against Environmental Health Hazards

Protecting against environmental health hazards means addressing aspects of the environment that pose risks to human health, such as monitoring air and water quality, developing policies and programs to reduce exposure to environmental health risks and promote healthy environments, and identifying and mitigating environmental risks such as foodborne and waterborne diseases, radiation, occupational health hazards, and public health nuisances.

Prepare and Respond To Emergencies

Preparing and responding to emergencies means engaging in activities that prepare public health departments to respond to events and incidents and assist communities in recovery, such as providing leadership for public health preparedness activities within a community; developing, exercising and periodically reviewing response plans for public health threats; and developing and maintaining a system of public health workforce readiness, deployment, and response.

Assure Health Services

Assuring health services means engaging in activities such as assessing the availability of health-related services and health care providers in local communities; identifying gaps and barriers; convening community partners to improve community health systems; and providing services identified as priorities by the local assessment and planning process.

NAME: ODO JULIANA CHINENYE
REG. NUMBER: 2018/SD/37269
YEAR OF STUDY: 3/5
DEPARTMENT: EDUCATION/ECONOMICS

QUESTION 6: Which are the most influential theories of development, and are they compatible? Is underdevelopment an internally (domestically) or externally (internationally) induced phenomenon?
There are numerous, competing theories that inform the study of development economics. We will examine three major theories.
1. DEPENDENCY AND THEORIES OF DUALISM
Underdevelopment is viewed as an externally-induced process which is perpetuated by a small but powerful domestic elite who form an alliance with the international capitalist system. Dependency theorists assign a modernising role for post-colonial states to induce the process of development. The “development of underdevelopment” is therefore systemic and path-dependent. From a historical perspective, capital accumulation has been governed by the law of uneven development.
2. CLASSICAL MARXIAN THEORIES
Marx traces the development of the capitalist mode of production from the pre-capitalist era of feudalism. Although there does not exist a systematic Marxian theory of development, the theory is implicit in Marx’s study of the laws of motion of the capitalist mode of production in his 3 volumes of Capital.expropriation of land gave rise to the process of “primitive accumulation”. However, Marx argues that the prospects for the development of capitalism crucially depend upon the pre-existing modes of production. He supports this thesis by comparing feudalism with what he describes as the “Asiatic” societies.
3. NEO-MARXIAN THEORIES
Perhaps the most influential of the neo-Marxian current has been Paul Baran’s seminal work, The Political Economy of Growth. To highlight this hypothesis, Baran compares the Indian economy, which had been dominated by British colonialism, with the Japanese experience, which had been relatively free from foreign domination. He then analyses the “distortions” caused by colonialism and argues that foreign outlets for investment were essentially governed by the problem of “surplus absorption” within the imperialist centres. Baran’s analysis also prefigured the “dependency” theorists by asserting that these former colonies are condemned as suppliers of commodities for the world market. The failure to develop a domestic market and the growth of luxury consumption by the privileged oligarchy or the “comprador class,” merely perpetuates this underdevelopment. Baran’s central argument was that economic development was not possible under these conditions of neo-colonialism.
Question 7: What constraints most hold back accelerated growth, depending on local conditions?
The rate of growth can be slowed down or even reversed by various factors affecting the economy, some of these constraints can be dealt with through economic and social policy, while others maybe difficult to resolve. These constraints are;
1. Inefficiencies within micro economy, producers in less developed nations may not be able to produce at the lowest possible average cost. this may be as a result of the inability to apply technology of production.
2. Lack of real capital resources, many developing economies do not have the needed financial capital to engage in public and private investment. This is as the result of the following reasons, lack of savings, low growth, excessive debt burden etc.
3. Population is a considerable constraints on economic growth either becos of it rapid increase or too slow rate of growth.
4. Corruption on the parts of their leaders; some economies suffer from corruption in different sectors.
5. Absence of a developed legal system to protect property right, the right to start business is limited to a small section of elite, consumer right are not protected, employment right do not exist, competition law is limited.

QUESTION 8: How can improvements in the role and status of women have an especially beneficial impact on development prospects?
Eliminating the gap in well-being between males and females is as much a part of development as is reducing income poverty. Greater gender equality enhances economic efficiency and improves other development outcomes. It does so in the following ways:
•First, with women now representing 40 percent of the global labor force, overall productivity will increase if their skills and talents are used more fully. For example, if women farmers have the same access as men to productive resources such as land and fertilizers, agricultural output in developing countries could increase a lot Elimination of barriers against women working in certain sectors or occupations could increase output by raising women’s participation and labor productivity through better allocation of their skills and talent.
•Second, greater control over household resources by women, either through their own earnings or cash transfers, can enhance countries’ growth prospects by changing spending in ways that benefit children. Evidence shows that when women control more household income either through their own earnings or through cash transfers—children benefit as a result of more spending on food and education.
•Finally, empowering women as economic, political, and social actors can change policy choices and make institutions more representative of a range of voices.

QUESTION 9: What are the causes of extreme poverty, and what policies have been most effective for improving the lives of the poorest of the poor?
In agriculture, the productivity level is very low due to subdivided and fragmented holdings, lack of capital, use of traditional methods of cultivation, illiteracy etc. The very reason for poverty in the country is this factor only.
Underemployment and veiled unemployment of human resources and less utilization of resources have resulted in low production in the agricultural sector. This brought a downfall in their standard of living.
Poor is becoming poorer because of continuous and steep price rise. It has benefited a few people in the society and the persons in lower income group find it difficult to get their minimum needs.
One of the main causes of poverty is the continuous expanding army of unemployed in our country. The job seeker is increasing in number at a higher rate than the expansion in employment opportunities.
The much-required capital and sustainable entrepreneurship play a very important role in accelerating the growth. But these are in short supply making it difficult to increase production significantly.
Policies to reduce poverty
Minimum wage: Free market policies to promote economic growth – hoping that rising living standards will filter down to the poorest in society.
Means-tested welfare benefits to the poorest in society; for example, unemployment benefit, food stamps, income support and housing benefit.

QUESTION 10: Rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations? Do large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity?
Africans view large families as an economic asset and as a symbol of worth and honor, and parents see it as security during old age. The ideal family size in Africa is 5 to 7 children. Because of its complex causes, curbing the rapid growth is not easy. Rapid population growth is one of the major contributing factors to the poverty and under-development of Third World countries–especially African countries, which boast the highest population growth rates in the world. Several factors are responsible for the rapid growth: a drop in mortality rates, a young population, improved standards of living, and attitudes and practices which favor high fertility. In addition to strategic difficulties, population policies usually meet opposition, often from religious groups. So in order to gain acceptance, population programs need to be integrated with ongoing community development programs. Even though it often engenders opposition, family planning is more crucial then ever, as the rapid population growth continues to create an explosive situation. Rapid growth has led to uncontrolled urbanization, which has produced overcrowding, destitution, crime, pollution, and political turmoil. Rapid growth has outstripped increases in food production, and population pressure has led to the overuse of arable land and its destruction. Rapid growth has also hampered economic development and caused massive unemployment. 45% of Kenya’s labor force is unemployed. Ultimately, rapid growth has undermined the quality of life of people. Society’s responsibility extends beyond simply ensuring the survival of the population. Society must strive to provide people with a good life–one with dignity. So large families do not make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity.

QUESTION 11: Why is there so much unemployment and underemployment in the developing world, especially in the cities, and why do people continue to migrate to the cities from rural areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job are very slim?
1. underemployment is the business cycle the economy currently operates in. If the economy is currently in a recession or economic depression, it is unlikely that organizations will be hiring for many full-time positions.
2. Supply and demand: when certain industries no longer need workers, people with the skills that match that industry may be forced to accept low-income jobs that don’t fully utilize their skills. For example, the decline of the coal industry has forced many former mining employees to look for work in other industries.
3. Technological changes: Sometimes technology takes the job of a worker who would have previously been employed in a position that has since become automated. Wealthier societies are also healthier ones because they have more resources for improving nutrition and health care. But does better health also help spur successful development?
4. The positive impact that health has on growth and poverty reduction occurs through a number of mechanisms, such as through a reduction of production losses due to fewer worker illnesses, the increased productivity of adults as a result of better nutrition, lower absenteeism rates and improved learning among school .Studies show this is true for countries as well; health can be a causative factor for the aggregate economic growth of a country.

QUESTION 12: Wealthier societies are also healthier ones because they have more resources for improving nutrition and health care. But does better health also help spur successful development?
Good health is also essential for the stability of entire regions, as pandemics, which transcend borders, can have severe social and economic impacts on families and communities, and can put increased pressure on health systems. Ensuring the health and well-being of all is essential to poverty eradication efforts and achieving sustainable development, contributing to economic growth and prosperous communities. The incentive effect is borne of the theoretical literature, and individuals who are healthier and have a greater life expectancy will have the incentive to invest in education as the time horizon over which returns can be earned is extended. It is also a key indicator of a country’s progress: a nation with a healthy population is more likely to experience sustained growth. Although global health has improved significantly in recent decades, this benefit has not been shared evenly within and among nations. Several hundred million people across the globe continue to go without basic health services, especially in rural areas and in the most impoverished communities. The role of health in economic development is analyzed via two channels: the direct labor productivity effect and the indirect incentive effect. The labor productivity hypothesis asserts that individuals who are healthier have higher returns to labor input. This is well tested in the empirical literature with mixed conclusions. Education is the driver of economic growth, and thus health plays an indirect role. Accounting for the simultaneous determination of the key variables – growth, education, fertility – the results show that the indirect effect of health is positive and significant. Without recognition of the indirect role of health the economic benefits of health improvements are underestimated.

QUESTION 13:
Good health is the foundation of a country’s human capital. Poor public health is economically unsustainable for families and entire countries. The impact of poor quality care goes well beyond mortality, but can lead to unnecessary suffering, persistent symptoms, loss of function, and a lack of trust in the health system. Other side effects are wasted resources and catastrophic health expenditures. To address the problem, we need
– Higher taxes on alcohol and tobacco
– Improve health standards
– Improve research
– Transnational support
– Reduction in consumption
– Recycle and reuse
– Reduce corruptive actions
– Promote vaccinations
– Education and research

Name:Ekpe Esther Chidinma
Reg.number: 2018/250324
Department: Economic
6. Which are the most influential theories of development, and are they compatible? Is underdevelopment an internally (domestically) or externally (internationally) induced phenomenal?
In a developed country there must be some basic qualities such as employment opportunities, satisfaction -at least- of basic needs, and the achievement of a positive rate of distribution and redistribution of national wealth. In a political sense this definition emphasizes that governmental systems have legitimacy not only in terms of the law, but also in terms of providing social benefits for the majority of the population. Underdevelopment is viewed as an externally-induced process which is perpetuated by a small but powerful domestic elite who form an alliance with the international capitalist system. The “development of underdevelopment” is therefore systemic and path-dependent.
7. What constraints most hold back accelerated growth, depending on local conditions?
Literacy :-
The literacy rate is very low in the under developed countries. It reduces the rate of economic growth.
Allocative inefficiency:
When developing economies remain closed to competition and they are dominated by local monopolies, or when production is in the hands of the state, prices might not reflect the marginal cost of production. Opening up the economy to free trade, and privatisation of industry may help promote a more competitive environment, and reduce allocatively inefficiency.
Population:
Population is a considerable constraint on economic growth, either, and most commonly, because there is high rate of population growth for the country’s current resources or because the population is growing too slowly or declining as a result of war, famine, or disease. Many economists see population growth as the single biggest issue facing developing countries. The line of argument runs as follows:

Firstly, the take-off phase of development and economic growth creates positive externalities from the application of science and technology to healthcare and education and this leads to a decline in the death rate, but no decline, or even an increase, in the birth rate. Over time life expectancy rises, but the age distribution remains skewed, with an increasing number of dependents in the lower age range. As a result, the number of consumers relative to producers increases.

The short-term gains from growth are quickly eroded as GDP per capita actually falls, hence, only when the birth rate falls will GDP per capita rise. In this case, there is a positive role for government in terms of encouraging a lower birth rate.
8. How can improvements in the role and status of women have an especially beneficial impact on development prospects?
Women in rural area’s play a dual role-producers of goods and services as well as their domestic chores and wives and mothers–yet their contribution to economic development has been neglected. In terms of general household activities, women are found there. In terms of agricultural activities women are also there. Taken together, women’s contribution to economic activities is close to 80/% . The problems most often cited by survey respondents included health, malnutrition, repeated childbearing, and education. It can be improved by enhancing women with the following economic development , women must receive the following services: training in income generating activities, easy access to low-interest loans, and family planning services to limit childwbearing.
9. What are the causes of extreme poverty, and what policies have been most effective for improving the lives of the poorest of the poor?
1. INEQUALITY AND MARGINALIZATION
Gender inequality, caste systems, marginalization based on race or tribal affiliations are all economic and social inequalities that mean the same thing: Little to no access to the resources needed to live a full, productive life. When combined with different combinations of vulnerability and hazards which comprise the rest of this list — a marginalized community may become even more vulnerable to the cycle of poverty.
2. CONFLICT
Conflict is one of the most common forms of risk driving poverty today. Large-scale, protracted violence that we’ve seen in areas like Syria can grind society to a halt, destroying infrastructure and causing people to flee (often with nothing but the clothes on their backs). In its tenth year of conflict, Syria’s middle class has been all but destroyed, and over 80% of the population now lives below the poverty line.
3. HUNGER, MALNUTRITION, AND STUNTING
Hunger is a cause — and maintainer — of poverty. If a person doesn’t get enough food, they’ll lack the strength and energy needed to work (or their immune system will weaken from malnutrition and leave them more susceptible to illness that prevents them from getting to work).
What policies have been most effective for improving the lives of the poorest of the poor?
1. Creation of job opportunities
2. Raise the minimum wage
3. Increase the Earned Income Tax Credit for childless workers
4. Support pay equity
5. Provide paid leave and paid sick days

10. Rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations? Do large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity? Yes rapid population threaten the economic progress. It is found that economic development is slow where the population is increasing at faster rate. Population problem means the problem of fulfilling the basic needs like housing, food. Thus, the rapid population growth of population directly affects the economic, social and environmental development of a country.
Large families makes widespread poverty and financial insecurity? Every child poverty reduces productivity and economic output and GDP each year.Children living in poverty have higher dropout rates and absenteeism, which limits their employability and lastly Poverty increases the risk of poor health.
11. Why is there so much unemployment and underemployment in the developing world, especially in the cities, and why do people continue to migrate to the cities from rural areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job are very slim?
The basic cause of unemployment in developing countries is the deficiency of the availability of essential consumer goods, often called wage goods. … Given the real wage rate, a particular number of people can be employed in the economy, depending upon the supply of wage-goods in the economy.
Employment opportunities are the most common reason due to which people migrate. Except this, lack of opportunities, better education, construction of dams, globalization, natural disaster (flood and drought) and sometimes crop failure forced villagers to migrate to cities.
12 Wealthier societies are also healthier ones because they have more resources for improving nutrition and health care. But does better health also help spur successful development?
The positive impact that health has on growth and poverty reduction occurs through a number of mechanisms, such as through a reduction of production losses due to fewer worker illnesses, the increased productivity of adults as a result of better nutrition, lower absenteeism rates and improved learning among school.
13. What is the impact of poor public health on the prospects for development, and what is needed to address these problems?
1.Poor health, growth and development
It is notable that many countries in the world also suffer from the greatest degree of poor health.
2.Undernourishment
3.Malaria
4.Waterborne disease
1.Every woman and newborn should have a complete, accurate, and standardized medical record.
2.Health facilities need well-trained and motivated staff consistently available to provide care.
3.No woman should be subjected to harmful practices during labour, childbirth, and the early postnatal period.
4.Women and newborns who need referrals can obtain them without delay.
5.Communication with women and their families must be effective and respond to their needs

NAME : OKPUZOR EMMANUEL CHIDERA.
REG NUMBER: 2018/242433.
DEPARTMENT: ECONOMICS.
EMAIL: Okpuzoremmanuel232@gmail.com
ECO 361 ASSIGNMENT.

6.) Which are the most influential theories of development, and are they compatible? Is underdevelopment an internally (domestically) or externally (internationally) induced pheneomenon?
The most influential theories of development:
a.) Modernization theory
b.) Dependency
b.) World- system
c.) Globalization
Modernization Theory: According to the modernization theory, modern societies are more productive, children are better educated, and the needy receive more welfare. According to Smelser’s analysis, modern societies have the particular feature of social structural differentiation, that is to say a clear definition of functions and political roles from national institutions.
Theory of dependency: The foundations of the theory of dependency emerged in the 1950s from the research of the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean.
The theory of dependency combines elements from a neo-marxist perspective with Keynes’ economic theory – the liberal economic ideas which emerged in the United States and Europe as a response to the depression years of the 1920s. From the Keynes’ economic approach, the theory of dependency embodies four main points:
a) To develop an important internal effective demand in terms of domestic markets;
b) To recognize that the industrial sector is crucial to achieving better levels of national development, especially due to the fact that this sector, in comparison with the agricultural sector, can contribute more value-added to products;
c) To increase worker’s income as a means of generating more aggregate demand in national market conditions.
d.) To promote a more effective government role in order to reinforce national development conditions and to increase national standards of living.
Theory of world system: A central element from which the theory of world-systems emerged was the different form that capitalism was taking around the world.
Globalization: The theory of globalization emerges from the global mechanisms of greater integration with particular emphasis on the sphere of economic transactions.
6b.) Is underdevelopment an internally (domestically) or externally (internationally) induced phenomenon?
For me I think underdevelopment is both an internal and external induced phenomenon.
Using international trade as an example; the trade of cars between an underdeveloped and a developed country. Car can bring about development in a country, it assists in transportation and other things that aids development in a nation. If there is a restriction in the trade of car between the two countries, there will be an underdevelopment in the developing country. In the developed country, there is a reduction in the rate of export and a reduction in the per capita income of car bringing about underdevelopment.
Migration is another example which I will like to give. When people migrate to a country from the country they were initially let’s say they are migrating from Nigeria to Argentina. To Nigerians, labor force is been reduced and to the Argentines increased. To Nigeria, there is a reduction in the tendency to the rate of crime and to Argentina, an increase in the tendency of crime rate caused by the growing population.
7.) What constraints most hold back accelerated growth, depending on local conditions?
The following constraints can hold back economic growth, depending on local conditions:
a.) Illiteracy: If the rate of literacy is low in any society, the society is prone to be downgraded with economic growth.
b.) Joint family system: In a situation whereby families live together doing nothing except maybe quarrelling with each other, the economic growth reduces as it won’t in any way contribute to any growth in the country or society.
c.) Corruption: The best examples of countries that have had poor economic growth due to regional conflicts are the Africa economics that are perpetually at war with each other and within themselves. Despite the availability of resources in the western African countries, the state of civil war in many of these countries has made the economic development of them stunted.
d.) Scarce human Capital: Due to the lack of education and other social needs, those in the less developed world often lack the skills needed to grow the economy where and when necessary.
e.) Poor infrastructure: When there is no good infrastructure, economy tends to go down. This is one of the most prominent factors that can reduce the growth of any economy.
8.) How can improvements in the role and status of women have an especially beneficial impact on development prospects.
9.) What are the causes of extreme poverty, and what policies have been most effective for improving the lives of the poorest of the poor?
Below are some of the causes of Extreme Poverty:
a.) Lack of education
b.)Poor public works and infrastructure
c.) Climate change
d.) Conflict
e.) Inequality and marginalization.
9b.) Policies that have been made to reduce the rate of poverty and improving the lives of the poor:
a.) Minimum wage laws which require that all employers to pay their employees a minimum amount of wage that is determined by the government.
b.) Social security: which refers to several different government benefits, such as income support, tax credits, social welfare, or unemployment benefits.
c.) Negative income tax: Here individuals with a higher income pay a more significant percentage of their income in taxes. As part of those additional tax revenues can be used to subsidize individuals and families with low income.
d.) In kind benefits: are non-cash alternative to regular benefits. The idea behind this is to provide low-income families and individuals directly with access to certain goods and services they need most to increase their standard of living.
10.) Rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations? Do large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity?
10a.)Rapid growth has outstripped increases in food production, and population, and population pressure has led on the overuse of arable land and its destruction. Rapid growth has also hampered economic development and caused massive unemployment.

10b.) Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and wellbeing of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right of security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disabkility and what have you beyond his control. So yes! Families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity.
11.) Why is there so much unemployment and underemployment in the developing world, especially in the cities, and why do people continue to migrate to the cities from rural areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job are very slim?
11a.)
i.)Lack of Physical capital relative to labor force
ii.) The nature of unemployment in under-developed countries is quite different; it is of chronic and long-term nature.
iii.)Lack of wage goods and unemployment in developing countries.
iv.)Lack of the stock of physical capital
11b.) For me I think they are migrating to find comfort, to visit family and friends, visit their love ones and all. People migrate to the urban areas to sell things made in the rural areas to get money.
12.) Wealthier societies are also healthier ones because they have more resources for improving nutrition and health care. But does better health also help spur successful development?
Health is a key component of an individual’swelfare and standard of living. Sickness and ill health, and the risk of death, are central issues in shaping human capabilities and behavior.
There is therefore a strong argument for health spending on the grounds that it has a direct effect on human wellbeing and happiness. The market for health is special and the provision of health often requires a large element of involvement by government. Infectious diseases have obvious externalities that create a large public interest in their control. In addition, the uncertainty of the occurrence of ill health, and the large medical bills that it may lead to, creates a need for insurance or borrowing to finance health expenditures.

13.) What is the impact of poor public health on the prospects for development, and what is needed to address these problems?
Impact of poor public health on the prospects for development:
a.) Limiting one’s ability to work
b.) Reducing economic opportunities
c.) Inhibiting educational attainment.
d.) Individuals suffering from illness may be week, unable to work or study and generally unable to provide for children and other dependants.
Barriers that assist to address this issues:
a.) Lack of consensus on the content of the public health mission
b.) Inadequate capacity to carry out the essential public health functions of assessment, policy development, and assurance of services.
c.) Inequalities in the distribution of services and benefits of public health.
d.)Organizational fragmentation or submersion.

Name: Aneke Hannah
Reg no : 2018/2242453
Course code: Eco 361
Department: Economics department
Email: aneke.Chimuaya. 242453@unn.edu.ng

Question
6)Which are the most influential theories of development, and are they compatible? Is underdevelopment an internally (domestically) or externally (internationally) induced phenomenon?
Answer
6) Development theory is a collection of theories about how desirable change in society is best achieved. Such theories draw on a variety of social science disciplines and approaches. In this article, multiple theories are discussed, as are recent developments with regard to these theories. Depending on which theory that is being looked at, there are different explanations to the process of development and their inequalities.
Underdevelopment is viewed as an externally-induced process which is perpetuated by a small but powerful domestic elite who form an alliance with the international capitalist system. The “development of underdevelopment” is therefore systemic and path-dependent.

7. What constraints most hold back accelerated growth, depending on local conditions?
Answer
economic growth was held back by three key constraints.

The first was the savings constraint. A poor country such as India could not save enough of its annual national income to sustain high rates of investment. The lack of domestic savings was without doubt the most serious constraint to economic growth in the early decades after political independence.
The second was the foreign exchange constraint. This lack of hard currency to import the capital equipment needed to build new industrial capacity led to the Nehruvian quest to build a domestic capital goods industry ahead of a consumer goods industry.
The third was the food constraint. The Mumbai critics of the Mahalanobis plans had warned that the impact of the lack of wage goods would be inflationary as money incomes went up. The mainstream plan models optimistically considered agriculture as a bargain sector in which production could be increased with minimal investment
Question
8)How can improvements in the role and status of women have an especially beneficial impact on development prospects?

Question
What are the causes of extreme poverty, and what policies have been most effective for improving the lives of the poorest of the poor?
Answer
1. INEQUALITY AND MARGINALIZATION
“Inequality” is an easy, but sometimes misleading term used to describe the systemic barriers leaving groups of people without a voice or representation within their communities. For a population to escape poverty, all groups must be involved in the decision-making process — especially when it comes to having a say in the things that determine your place in society. Some of these may be obvious, but in other situations, it can be subtle.
Gender inequality, caste systems, marginalization based on race or tribal affiliations are all economic and social inequalities that mean the same thing: Little to no access to the resources needed to live a full, productive life. When combined with different combinations of vulnerability and hazards which comprise the rest of this list — a marginalized community may become even more vulnerable to the cycle of poverty.

2. CONFLICT
Conflict is one of the most common forms of risk driving poverty today. Large-scale, protracted violence that we’ve seen in areas like Syria can grind society to a halt, destroying infrastructure and causing people to flee (often with nothing but the clothes on their backs). In its tenth year of conflict, Syria’s middle class has been all but destroyed, and over 80% of the population now lives below the poverty line.
But even small bouts of violence can have huge impacts on communities that are already struggling. For example, if farmers are worried about their crops being stolen, they won’t invest in planting. Women also bear the brunt of conflict, which adds a layer of inequality to all conflict: During periods of violence, female-headed households become very common. And because women often have difficulty getting well-paying work and are typically excluded from community decision-making, their families are particularly vulnerable.

3.HUNGER, MALNUTRITION, AND STUNTING
You might think that poverty causes hunger (and you would be right!), but hunger is also a cause — and maintainer — of poverty. If a person doesn’t get enough food, they’ll lack the strength and energy needed to work (or their immune system will weaken from malnutrition and leave them more susceptible to illness that prevents them from getting to work).
The first 1,000 days of a child’s life (from womb to world) are key to ensuring their future health and likelihood of staying out of poverty. If a mother is malnourished during pregnancy, that can be passed on to her children, leading to wasting (low weight for height) or stunting (low height for age). Child stunting, both physical and cognitive, can lead to a lifetime of impacts: Adults who were stunted as children earn, on average, 22% less than those who weren’t stunted. In Ethiopia, stunting contributes to GDP losses as high as 16%.

4. LITTLE OR NO ACCESS TO CLEAN WATER, SANITATION, AND HYGIENE
Currently, more than 2 billion people don’t have access to clean water at home. This means that people (which is to say, women and girls) collectively spend some 200 million hours every day walking long distances to fetch water. That’s precious time that could be used working, or getting an education to help secure a job later in life.
Contaminated water can also lead to a host of waterborne diseases, ranging from the chronic to the life-threatening. Poor water infrastructure — such as sanitation and hygiene facilities — can compound this, or create other barriers to escaping poverty, such as keeping girls out of school during menstruation.

5. LACK OF EDUCATION
Not every person without an education is living in extreme poverty. But most of the extremely poor don’t have an education. There are many barriers to education around the world, including a lack of money for uniforms and books, a bias against girls’ education, or many of the other causes of poverty mentioned here.
But education is often referred to as the great equalizer, because it can open the door to jobs and other resources and skills that a family needs to not just survive, but thrive. UNESCO estimates that 171 million people could be lifted out of extreme poverty if they left school with basic reading skills. Poverty threatens education, but education can also help end.

1: Create jobs
The best pathway out of poverty is a well-paying job. To get back to prerecession employment levels, we must create 5.6 million new jobs. At the current pace, however, we will not get there until July 2018. To kick-start job growth, the federal government should invest in job-creation strategies such as rebuilding our infrastructure; developing renewable energy sources; renovating abandoned housing; and making other common-sense investments that create jobs, revitalize neighborhoods, and boost our national economy. We should also build on proven models of subsidized employment to help the long-term unemployed and other disadvantaged workers re-enter the labor force.
In addition, the extension of federal unemployment insurance would have created 200,000 new jobs in 2014, according to the Congressional Budget Office. Indeed, every $1 in benefits that flows to jobless workers yields more than $1.50 in economic activity. Unfortunately, Congress failed to extend federal unemployment insurance at the end of 2013, leaving 1.3 million Americans and their families without this vital economic lifeline.

2. Raise the minimum wage
In the late 1960s, a full-time worker earning the minimum wage could lift a family of three out of poverty. Had the minimum wage back then been indexed to inflation, it would be $10.86 per hour today, compared to the current federal minimum wage of $7.25 per hour. Raising the minimum wage to $10.10 per hour and indexing it to inflation—as President Barack Obama and several members of Congress have called for—would lift more than 4 million Americans out of poverty. Nearly one in five children would see their parent get a raise. Recent action taken by cities and states—such as Seattle, Washington; California; Connecticut; and New Jersey—shows that boosting the minimum wage reduces poverty and increases wages.

3. Increase the Earned Income Tax Credit for childless workers
One of our nation’s most effective anti-poverty tools, the Earned Income Tax Credit, or EITC, helped more than 6.5 million Americans—including 3.3 million children—avoid poverty in 2012. It’s also an investment that pays long-term dividends. Children who receive the EITC are more likely to graduate high school and to have higher earnings in adulthood. Yet childless workers largely miss out on the benefit, as the maximum EITC for these workers is less than one-tenth that awarded to workers with two children.
President Obama and policymakers across the political spectrum have called for boosting the EITC in order to right this wrong. Importantly, this policy change should be combined with a hike in the minimum wage; one is not a substitute for the other.
4. Support pay equity
With female full-time workers earning just 78 cents for every $1 earned by men, action must be taken to ensure equal pay for equal work. Closing the gender wage gap would cut poverty in half for working women and their families and add nearly half a trillion dollars to the nation’s gross domestic product. Passing the Paycheck Fairness Act to hold employers accountable for discriminatory salary practices would be a key first step.
Question
10. Rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations? Do large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity?
Answer
Rapid growth has outstripped increases in food production, and population pressure has led to the overuse of arable land and its destruction. Rapid growth has also hampered economic development and caused massive unemployment.high population growth creates pressures on limited natural resources, reduces private and public capital formation, and diverts additions to capital resources to maintaining rather than increasing the stock of capital per worker.

Do large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity?
Yes, in a family where there are too many children, they make use of their labour force to conquer the existing poverty or financial insecurities.

Question
11. Why is there so much unemployment and underemployment in the developing world, especially in the cities, and why do people continue to migrate to the cities from rural areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job are very slim?
Answer
The basic cause of unemployment in developing countries is the deficiency of the availability of essential consumer goods, often called wage goods. … Given the real wage rate, a particular number of people can be employed in the economy, depending upon the supply of wage-goods in the economy.

B.why do people continue to migrate to the cities from rural areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job are very slim?

The failure to improve significantly the relative economic position of the poorest income group has become a less recognized problem for many developed countries. As many researchers, economists try to find solution to the problem as it seems as though gaining employment is the only source of income for the poor because unemployment is becoming the only social problem hindering development.
Question
12 Wealthier societies are also healthier ones because they have more resources for improving nutrition and health care. But does better health also help spur successful development?
Answer
Yes,Wealthier societies are also healthier ones because they have more resources for improving nutrition and health care also these Wealthy societies have better equipment that improves health and make life easier.
There’s a saying that says health is wealth.

But does better health also help spur successful development?
Yes better health also help spur successful development. This occurs through a number of mechanisms, such as through a reduction of production losses due to fewer worker illnesses, the increased productivity of adults as a result of better nutrition, lower absenteeism rates and improved learning among school .

Question
13. What is the impact of poor public health on the prospects for development, and what is needed to address these problems?

Answer
In instrumental terms, health impacts economic growth in a number of ways. For example, it reduces production losses due to worker illness, it increases the productivity of adult as a result of better nutrition, and it lowers absenteeism rates and improves learning among school children.
Poverty can affect children’s cognitive development, and those living in poverty are over three times more likely to suffer from mental health problems. … Most individual long-term conditions are more than twice as common i
In instrumental terms, health impacts economic growth in a number of ways. For example, it reduces production losses due to worker illness

what is needed to address these problems?

Inform, educate, and empower people about health issues. Mobilize community partnerships to identify and solve health problems. Develop policies and rules that support individual and community health efforts. Enforce laws, rules and regulations that protect public health and the environment and ensure safety.

NAME::EZEA SOPULUCHUKWU LUKE

REG NO:: 2018/251024

DEPARTMENT;: ECONOMICS

LEVEL::300 LEVEL

EMAIL:: sopuluchukwuluke@gmail.com

COURSE:: DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS
ASSIGNMENT
1..1. CLASSICAL MARXIAN THEORIES

Although there does not exist a systematic Marxian theory of development, the theory is implicit in Marx’s study of the laws of motion of the capitalist mode of production in his 3 volumes of Capital. Marx traces the development of the capitalist mode of production from the pre-capitalist era of feudalism. Capitalism first emerged in Europe and was imposed, often violently, on other regions of the world. Earlier mercantilist forms of outright plunder and violent expropriation of land gave rise to the process of “primitive accumulation”. However, Marx argues that the prospects for the development of capitalism crucially depend upon the pre-existing modes of production. He supports this thesis by comparing feudalism with what he describes as the “Asiatic” societies. Whereas the dissolution of feudalism was favourable for the expansion of capitalism in Europe, the opposite is the case in Asia. The reason for this contrast was that feudalism had already developed forms of private ownership, while the Asiatic societies were principally based upon the communal ownership of land.

In Europe, the process of primitive accumulation involved the creation of wage labour, which migrated from the rural hinterland to the industrial regions. The eventual triumph of capitalism will depend largely on the historical conditions, which either promote or retard the development of a market economy. Marx also stressed other factors: the influx of precious metals from the “new world”, the slave trade and the growth of merchant capital (Braudel, 1984). The original Marxian theory had envisaged that capitalism would eventually become the dominant economic system on a world scale. The dynamic “inner laws” of capital, driven by the profit motive and accumulation, attracts into the ambit of world trade, all other pre-capitalist societies.

Marx’s earlier writings on colonialism focused on British colonial policy in India. By the nineteenth century, the British East India company had ceased to be profitable as a solely mercantilist enterprise and became a publicly-listed company. As merchant capital, its role in India was wholly destructive because it failed to create the conditions for the growth of capitalism. As soon as it became a capitalist enterprise, however, it acquired the role of industrial capital and began to sow the seeds of capitalist enterprise in India itself.

2..Inefficiency
Productive inefficiency
Producers in less developed countries may not be able to produce at the lowest possible average cost. This may be because of the failure to apply technology to production, using obsolete technology, or because of the inability to achieve economies of scale. Opening up the economy to free trade may help reduce this type of inefficiency, and encourage technology transfer.

Allocative inefficiency
When developing economies remain closed to competition, when they are dominated by local monopolies, or when production is in the hands of the state, prices might not reflect the marginal cost of production. Opening up the economy to free trade, and privatisation of industry may help promote a more competitive environment, and reduce allocatively inefficiency.
Inefficiency
X inefficiency can arise when there is a lack of competition in a market. It is primarily associated with inefficient management, where average cost is above its minimum. Competition is limited in many developing economies, and resources are often allocated by government. This means that inefficient management is common.

Social inefficiency
Social inefficiency exists when social costs do not equate with social benefits. This can arise when externalities are not taken into account. For example, under-spending on education creates social inefficiency. Some of these inefficiencies are the result of the economy not allowing market forces to operate, while others are the result of market failures. Negative externalities like pollution are often largely uncontrolled in less developed parts of the world, and this imposes a constraint on the sustainability of development.

3..Traditionally, women were considered to be full-time homemakers. Their responsibilities were to take care of their children and family. They didn’t have any role in the household earning. Over the years, the roles of women have changed. Here we are going to discuss it.

Child-bearing role

Women now bear less number of children than they used to before. Most families now have one or two children. They even give birth to a child at a more matured age. Women now have children even without marriage.

Education

More women are now getting literate and they are also pursuing higher education. This is creating an opportunity for them to work. They are also playing role in family decision making.

Outside activities

Women are no longer staying home full-time. They are going to the market for doing grocery shopping, paying bills and doing all the works that only men used to do before. They are getting more involved in the outside works.

Workplace

Women have entered the workplace. They also earn for their family just like men. However, the percentage of women in the workplace is still less than that of men as women have to take the major household responsibilities. The percentage of the part-time job is more in case of women. Women are still often seen in the caring or teaching sector. But now more women are entering the male-dominated sectors like politics, the legal system, etc. as well. More women are occupying senior management positions.

Fighting for rights

Women now have a voice, unlike before. Families are no more male-dominated. Like men, women also make major life decisions. Women have stood against dowry and domestic violence. Even in the workplace, they fight against sexual abuse and equality. Child marriage is being stopped in many communities.

Men now play a role in child raising and household activities just like women. Both men and women now share their responsibilities both home and outside. Women now stand against any discrimination and torture. There have been lots of gender-issue related movements and many social organizations now fight for women’s rights. Women are now getting power even in rural areas. In many countries now women are the head of the state. Education has made women independent and they are no longer dependent on men to lead their lives.

Business laws have changed to allow more women in the workplace and giving them a comfortable environment to work in. Women can now stand tall like men and get equal opportunities in everything.

4i..1. Government Corruption

Since its founding, government corruption has plagued Nigeria. This corruption is one of the major causes of poverty in Nigeria. Government officials often take payments from oil companies that are supposed to go into public trusts—payments that can often total more than $1 billion—and instead siphon that money into their own personal bank accounts.

When government officials engage in this kind of corruption, the poor and underserved populations within Nigeria are inevitably hurt. If these large sums of money stopped going into government officials’ pockets, the Nigerian government could use that money to build up the country’s infrastructure—electricity, roads, running water and more.

2. Lack of Economic Infrastructure

An infrastructure that supports economic growth at every level is essential to pull people out of poverty. In Nigeria, economic infrastructure includes things like access to micro-credit that help farmers invest in their crops and entrepreneurs lift their businesses off the ground. Micro-credit is an especially important tool for Nigerian women working to escape poverty.

Female entrepreneurship and autonomy can provide financial stability to entire families and, by extension, larger communities. Another one of the main causes of poverty in Nigeria is the simple fact that many Nigerians, especially in rural communities, do not have the means to escape their circumstances. Setting up economic structures that empower Nigerian people is vital to combating poverty within the country.

3. Poor Access to Education

Economic infrastructure is not the only infrastructure that is lacking in Nigeria. Currently, a lack of a robust educational system underserves many of the poorest Nigerians. 10.5 million Nigerian children do not attend school at all, and 60% of those children are girls.

These problems are especially profound in the northern, more rural parts of Nigeria. Terrorist groups such as Boko Haram that vilify Western education further exasperate the situation. Education gives many the skills they need to enter the workforce and escape impoverishment, and the lack of educational opportunity is one of the truly devastating causes of poverty in Nigeria.

4. Poor Access to Healthcare

Nigeria might be the most populous country in Africa, but they are running low on healthcare professionals. The current ratio of nurses, midwives and doctors to patients is 1.95 to 1,000.

With such a low density of medical care available, many people in Nigeria either go completely without medical care or without enough medical care. But sickness is costly, and oftentimes can trap people into never-ending cycles of poverty. Improving Nigerians’ access to healthcare is an essential step to reduce the amount of poverty in Nigeria.

At the surface, these problems can seem daunting and unsolvable. But the first step to crafting sustainable solutions is understanding the contours of the problem. By understanding the causes of poverty in Nigeria, organizations like UNICEF and WHO have started various initiatives to strengthen the economic, education, and health care infrastructure in Nigeria, as well as reduce government corruption.

Working hand in hand with international partners, Nigeria is continuously demonstrating its commitment to crafting a better future for its impoverished citizens.
4ii..1. Create jobs
The best pathway out of poverty is a well-paying job. To get back to prerecession employment levels, we must create 5.6 million new jobs. At the current pace, however, we will not get there until July 2018. To kick-start job growth, the federal government should invest in job-creation strategies such as rebuilding our infrastructure; developing renewable energy sources; renovating abandoned housing; and making other common-sense investments that create jobs, revitalize neighborhoods, and boost our national economy. We should also build on proven models of subsidized employment to help the long-term unemployed and other disadvantaged workers re-enter the labor force.

In addition, the extension of federal unemployment insurance would have created 200,000 new jobs in 2014, according to the Congressional Budget Office. Indeed, every $1 in benefits that flows to jobless workers yields more than $1.50 in economic activity. Unfortunately, Congress failed to extend federal unemployment insurance at the end of 2013, leaving 1.3 million Americans and their families without this vital economic lifeline.

2. Raise the minimum wage
In the late 1960s, a full-time worker earning the minimum wage could lift a family of three out of poverty. Had the minimum wage back then been indexed to inflation, it would be $10.86 per hour today, compared to the current federal minimum wage of $7.25 per hour. Raising the minimum wage to $10.10 per hour and indexing it to inflation—as President Barack Obama and several members of Congress have called for—would lift more than 4 million Americans out of poverty. Nearly one in five children would see their parent get a raise. Recent action taken by cities and states—such as Seattle, Washington; California; Connecticut; and New Jersey—shows that boosting the minimum wage reduces poverty and increases wages.

3. Increase the Earned Income Tax Credit for childless workers
One of our nation’s most effective anti-poverty tools, the Earned Income Tax Credit, or EITC, helped more than 6.5 million Americans—including 3.3 million children—avoid poverty in 2012. It’s also an investment that pays long-term dividends. Children who receive the EITC are more likely to graduate high school and to have higher earnings in adulthood. Yet childless workers largely miss out on the benefit, as the maximum EITC for these workers is less than one-tenth that awarded to workers with two children.

President Obama and policymakers across the political spectrum have called for boosting the EITC in order to right this wrong. Importantly, this policy change should be combined with a hike in the minimum wage; one is not a substitute for the other.

4. Support pay equity
With female full-time workers earning just 78 cents for every $1 earned by men, action must be taken to ensure equal pay for equal work. Closing the gender wage gap would cut poverty in half for working women and their families and add nearly half a trillion dollars to the nation’s gross domestic product. Passing the Paycheck Fairness Act to hold employers accountable for discriminatory salary practices would be a key first step.

5. Provide paid leave and paid sick days
The United States is the only developed country in the world without paid family and medical leave and paid sick days, making it very difficult for millions of American families to balance work and family without having to sacrifice needed income. Paid leave is an important anti-poverty policy, as having a child is one of the leading causes of economic hardship. Additionally, nearly 4 in 10 private-sector workers—and 7 in 10 low-wage workers—do not have a single paid sick day, putting them in the impossible position of having to forgo needed income, or even their job, in order to care for a sick child. The Family and Medical Insurance Leave Act, or FAMILY Act, would provide paid leave protection to workers who need to take time off due to their own illness, the illness of a family member, or the birth of a child. And the Healthy Families Act would enable workers to earn up to seven job-protected sick days per year.

5i..Rapid population growth is one of the major contributing factors to the poverty and under-development of Third World countries–especially African countries, which boast the highest population growth rates in the world. Several factors are responsible for the rapid growth: a drop in mortality rates, a young population, improved standards of living, and attitudes and practices which favor high fertility. Africans view large families as an economic asset and as a symbol of worth and honor, and parents see it as security during old age. The ideal family size in Africa is 5 to 7 children. Because of its complex causes, curbing the rapid growth is not easy. In addition to strategic difficulties, population policies usually meet opposition, often from religious groups. So in order to gain acceptance, population programs need to be integrated with ongoing community development programs. Even though it often engenders opposition, family planning is more crucial then ever, as the rapid population growth continues to create an explosive situation. Rapid growth has led to uncontrolled urbanization, which has produced overcrowding, destitution, crime, pollution, and political turmoil. Rapid growth has outstripped increases in food production, and population pressure has led to the overuse of arable land and its destruction. Rapid growth has also hampered economic development and caused massive unemployment. 45% of Kenya’s labor force is unemployed. Ultimately, rapid growth has undermined the quality of life of people. Society’s responsibility extends beyond simply ensuring the survival of the population. Society must strive to provide people with a good life–one with dignity.
5ii..Economists, demographers and other social scientists have long debated the relationship between demographic change and economic outcomes. In recent years, general agreement has emerged to the effect that improving economic conditions for individuals generally lead to lower birth rates. But, there is much less agreement about the proposition that lower birth rates contribute to economic development and help individuals and families to escape from poverty. The paper examines recent evidence on this aspect of the debate, concludes that the burden of evidence now increasingly supports a positive conclusion, examines recent trends in demographic change and economic development and argues that the countries representing the last development frontier, those of Sub-Saharan Africa, would be well advised to incorporate policies and programmes to reduce high fertility in their economic development strategies.

6..
Rural-urban migration, urban unemployment and underemployment, and job-search activity in LDCs
G S Fields. J Dev Econ. 1975 Jun.
Show details

Cite

Abstract
PIP: A quantity adjustment framework is used to analyze unemployment and underemployment in less developed countries (LDCs). The basic premise of the formal theoretical model presented is that the same kinds of forces that explain the choices of workers between the rural and urban sectors can also explain thier choices between 1 labor market and another within an urban area and are most likely made simultaneously. The decision makers, whether family units or individuals, are presumed to consider the various labor market opportunities available to them and to choose the one which maximizes their expected future income. In the model the primary equilibrating force is taken to be the movement of workers between labor markets, not changes in wages. The point of departure is the received theory of rural urban migration in LDS, which is the model of Harris and Todaro (1970). The 1st step is a summary of the basic features of the model. While accepting their basic approach emphasizing movement of workers rather than changes in wages, it is shown that the particular implication of the model with respect to the equilibrium urban unemployment rate substantially overstates the rates actually observed by Turnham (1971) and others. The analysis is then extended to consider several important factors which have previously been neglected–a more generalized approach to the job search process, the possibility of underemployment in the so-called urban “murky sector,” preferential treatment by employers of the better educated, and consideration of labor turnover–and demonstrate that the resulting framework gives predictions closer to actual experience. Harris and Todaro in their original discussion concluded that a combination of a wage subsidy in the modern sector and physical restriction of migration would be required to realize a first best state lying on the economy’s production possibility frontier. Subsequently Bhagwati and Srinivasan (1974) challenged them and demonstrated that a first best solution can be achieved by means of a variety of alternative tax or subsidy schemes, none of which require migration restriction. This analysis suggests 3 additional policy variables, beyond those considered by either pair, which might be expected to have an important effect on the volume of unemployment and underemployment in LDCs: a smoothly functioning labor exchange would reduce the incentive to remain unemployed while searching for a superior job; the size of the educational system would also influence the amount of unemployment; and it is job hiring in the modern sector, more than the number of jobs, which primarily influences workers’ locational decisions.

7i..Studies have shown a positive correlation between good health and higher income. That is people who earn more money tend to have less disease and better health, overall. Poor health and higher rates of disease are associated more with those in lower income groups.

Those living in low-income households are less likely to have health insurance or access to medications and treatments that can treat chronic health conditions. Low-income families also have less access to preventative and specialty care. Even after the implementation of the Affordable Care Act, 27 million Americans remain uninsured (Khullar 2018).

Even mental health has been found to be affected by income with families that earn less than $35,000 reporting feeling nervous four times as often as families that earn more than $100,000 annually (Woolf 2015).

Perhaps the most striking statistics around health and wealth are those related to life expectancy. Since the 1970s, those in the higher end of the tax bracket have seen their life expectancies increase by more than 6 years, while those in the lower end have seen an increase of only 1.3 years (Woolf 2015). In fact, a study found that citizens living just 350 miles apart in some US cities have drastically different life expectancies. In McDowell County, West Virginia, men can expect to live to age 64, and in Fairfax, Virginia, men can expect to live to age 82 (Weng 2013).

It’s no surprise that individuals with higher income can afford gym memberships and have more time for improving their physical health. Higher paying careers are also more likely to provide comprehensive health insurance. We also know that nutritious food, such as fresh fruits and vegetables, cost more than calorie-dense, inexpensive, ready-to-eat meals.
7ii..Many people talk about the risks associated with being unhealthy rather than the benefits of being healthy. Being unhealthy, as we know, can cause a variety of nutrition and obesity-related health diseases. Chronic unhealthy habits result in 700,000 deaths in the US each year.

How come there’s less talk about the benefits of doing your body right? What does it offer you on a long-term basis? Keep reading to find out.

1. Fights Disease

Working out and eating right are a powerful duo when it comes to the longevity of health because it helps the body prevent disease. Health complications such as cancer, diabetes, or heart failure are all linked to poor health choices and a sedentary lifestyle.

While having a family history of a particular disease increases the chances you contract a disease, it is often the choices you make that either mark its appearance or makes it worse.

Eating a diet rich in fruits and vegetables equips the body with the antioxidants and fiber it needs to flush toxins to keep the cells healthy. Any exercise helpful overall body health, especially the heart.

2. Builds Confidence

You gain a new level of confidence when you work out on a regular basis. Strength training, walking, running, dancing, or swimming may initially seem troublesome, tiring, or hard for some.

However, after time the challenges and pain become worth it as you begin to enjoy it while seeing your body change in the process.

8i.. Login


HEALTH POLICY BRIEF CULTURE OF HEALTH
Health, Income, & Poverty: Where We Are & What Could Help
Dhruv Khullar Dave A. Chokshi
Strong evidence linking income and health suggests that policies promoting economic equity may have broad health effects.
OCTOBER 4, 2018 DOI: 10.1377/hpb20180817.901935

ABOUT
Key Points
Income is strongly associated with morbidity and mortality across the income distribution, and income-related health disparities appear to be growing over time.

Income influences health and longevity through various clinical, behavioral, social, and environmental mechanisms. Isolating the unique contribution of income to health can be difficult because this relationship intersects with many other social risk factors.

Poor health also contributes to reduced income, creating a negative feedback loop sometimes referred to as the health-poverty trap.

Income inequality has grown substantially in recent decades, which may perpetuate or exacerbate health disparities.

Policy initiatives that supplement income and improve educational opportunities, housing prospects, and social mobility—particularly in childhood—can reduce poverty and lead to downstream health effects not only for low-income people but also for those in the middle class.

Poverty has long been recognized as a contributor to death and disease, but several recent trends have generated an increased focus on the link between income and health. First, income inequality in the United States has increased dramatically in recent decades, while health indicators have plateaued, and life expectancy differences by income have grown. Second, there is growing scholarly and public recognition that many nonclinical factors—education, employment, race, ethnicity, and geography—influence health outcomes. Third, health care payment and delivery system reforms have encouraged an emphasis on addressing social determinants of health, including income.

In this brief, we review the evidence supporting the income-health relationship and the likely mechanisms through which income affects health. We then discuss the growing importance of this association, given widening income inequality, and discuss policy levers that might help reduce income-related health disparities.

Income And Health—The Evidence
Economic inequality is increasingly linked to disparities in life expectancy across the income distribution, and these disparities seem to be growing over time. In the 1970s, a sixty-year-old man in the top half of the income distribution could expect to live 1.2 years longer than a man in the bottom half. By the turn of the century, he could expect to live 5.8 years longer.

A landmark study by Raj Chetty and colleagues found that since 2001, life expectancy has increased by about 2.5 years for the top 5 percent of the income distribution, but there have been no gains for those in the bottom 5 percent. Men in the top 1 percent of the income distribution can now expect to live fifteen years longer than those in the bottom 1 percent. For women, the difference is about ten years—an effect equivalent to that of a lifetime of smoking.

While stark disparities in mortality along the economic gradient understandably capture our attention, we should not overlook substantial income-related differences in morbidity. The United States has among the largest income-based health disparities in the world: Poor adults are five times as likely as those with incomes above 400 percent of the federal poverty level to report being in poor or fair health.

In a nearly stepwise fashion, low-income Americans have higher rates of physical limitation and of heart disease, diabetes, stroke, and other chronic conditions, compared to higher-income Americans. Americans living in families that earn less than $35,000 a year are four times as likely to report being nervous and five times as likely to report being sad all or most of the time, compared to those living in families earning more than $100,000 a year. These disparities emerge early in life and can be transmitted across generations. For the 6.8 million children living in deep poverty (those with family incomes of less than half of poverty), there are adverse consequences across the life course related to nutrition, environmental exposures, chronic illness, and language development.

It is important to clearly distinguish between income and wealth. This brief focuses on income, which refers to the sum of wages, salaries, and other earnings in a given time period. By contrast, wealth encompasses the total value of assets and debts held by a person or family. Compared to income, wealth is harder to study and more unequally distributed, and it may be more important for health disparities that persist over generations.
8ii..Protect Against Environmental Health Hazards

Protecting against environmental health hazards means addressing aspects of the environment that pose risks to human health, such as monitoring air and water quality, developing policies and programs to reduce exposure to environmental health risks and promote healthy environments, and identifying and mitigating environmental risks such as foodborne and waterborne diseases, radiation, occupational health hazards, and public health nuisances.

Prepare and Respond To Emergencies

Preparing and responding to emergencies means engaging in activities that prepare public health departments to respond to events and incidents and assist communities in recovery, such as providing leadership for public health preparedness activities within a community; developing, exercising and periodically reviewing response plans for public health threats; and developing and maintaining a system of public health workforce readiness, deployment, and response.

Name: Stephen Faith Kuranen.
Reg.no: 2018/242333.
Department: Economics.
Course: Departmental Economics (Eco 361).
Clearly and convincingly answer the following Questions as the Special Adviser to Mr. President on Development and Employment Generation.

Q6. Which are the most influential theories of development, and are they compatible? Is underdevelopment an internally (domestically) or externally (internationally) induced phenomenon?
Answer: Theories of Economic development are
• The linear-stages of growth model.
• Theories and patterns of structural changes.
• The international dependence revolution.
• The neoclassical, free-market counter-revolution. (1)linear-stages-of-growth model, (2) theories and patterns of structural change, (3)
historically been followed by the more developed countries. In recent years, an eclectic approach has emerged that draws
on all of these classic theories.
Theorists of the 1950s and 1960s viewed the process of development as a series
and mixture of saving, investment, and foreign aid were all that was necessary to
enable developing nations to proceed along an economic growth path that had
the international-dependence revolution, and (4) the neoclassical, free-market
of successive stages of economic growth through which all countries must pass. It
was primarily an economic theory of development in which the right quantity
became synonymous with rapid, aggregate economic growth.
It was more radical and more political. It viewed underdevelopment in terms of
opportunities, and to reduce income inequalities. These and other egalitarian objectives competing schools of thought. The first, which focused on theories and patterns of changes were to be achieved within the context of a growing economy, but economic function of inefficient public enterprises. Failure to develop, according to this theory, is structural change, used modern economic theory and statistical analysis in any stages and structural change models.They Intended to emphasize external and internal institutional and political constraints
growth per second was not given the exalted status accorded to it by the linear
neoclassical (sometimes called neoliberal) counterrevolution in economic thought
developing country must undergo if it is to succeed in generating and sustaining
attempt to portray the internal process of structural change that a “typical” development not due to exploitive external and internal forces as expounded by dependence economic rigidities, and the resulting proliferation of dual economies and dual so throughout much of the 1980s and 1990s, a fourth approach prevailed. Theorists rather, it is primarily the result of too much government intervention and regulation of the economy. Today’s eclectic approach draws on all of these societies both within and among the nations of the world. Dependence theories on economic development. Emphasis was placed on the need for major new development.
This linear-stages approach was largely replaced in the 1970s by two companies
policies to eradicate poverty, to provide more diversified employment opportunities, rapid economic growth. The second, the international-dependence revolution, emphasized the beneficial role of free markets, open economies, and the privatization, international and domestic power relationships, institutional and structural economic perspectives, and we will highlight the strengths and weaknesses of the economy. Underdevelopment is either internally or externally depending on the phenomenon, but in this case it’s externally (international) why because the we are not in unity and peace with ourselves, lack helping each other to grow and the rest of them. After more than a half century of experience with attempting to encourage
modern development, we have learned that development is both possible and
extremely difficult to achieve.

Q7. What constraints most hold back accelerated growth, depending on local conditions?
° Poverty.
° Corruption.
° Bad Leadership.
° Unemployment.
° Dispute among others on different issues.
introducing the problem that despite significant improvements over the past half century, extreme poverty remains widespread in the economy often these impoverished people suffer from undernutrition and poor health, have little or no literacy, live in environmentally degraded meager living on small and marginal farms (or as day laborers) or in dilapi 40% of the world’s population—live on less than $2 a day. As you will see in per day at 2005 U.S. purchasing power parity, and some 2.6 billion—close to developing world. An estimated 1.374 billion people live on less than $1.25 areas, have little political voice, are socially excluded, and attempt to earn a dated urban slums.
Thus many developing countries that had experienced relatively high
rates of economic growth by historical standards discovered that such growth
often brought little in the way of significant benefits to their poor.
we are assuming that social welfare depends positively on the level of income per capita but negatively on poverty and negatively on the level of inequality, as these terms have just been defined.

Q8. How can improvements in the role and status of women have an especially beneficial impact on development prospects?
Answer: There is this quote that says women are only for the houses and kitchens but also the Nations at large. The roles of women are primarily recognized in the social, political, economic, cultural and religious spheres. In these spheres, when they are to possess efficient skills and abilities, so they are able to render their participation in an effectual manner. In addition to the skills and abilities, it is vital for women to generate awareness in terms of the factors influencing their participation. Empowering women as economic, political, and social actors can change policy choices and make institutions more representative of a range of voices. There are lots of beneficial impact when there are gender inequality in a developed country e.g USA, China, India and the rest of them even in some countries in Africa are seeing the improvements in the status of women in development prospects.

Q9. What are the causes of extreme poverty, and what policies have been most effective for improving the lives of the poorest of the poor?
Answer: More than 10% of the world’s population lives in extreme poverty. approximately 800 million people in the world, it’s their reality. 11% of the world’s population is living in extreme poverty, which is defined as surviving on only $1.90 a day.
1. Inadequate access to clean water and nutritious food.
2. Little or no access to livelihoods or jobs.
3. Conflict.
CONFLICT can cause poverty in several ways. Large scale, protracted violence that we see in places like Syria can grind society to a halt, destroy infrastructure, and cause people to flee, forcing families to sell or leave behind all their assets.
4. INEQUALITY: There are many different types of inequality in the world, from economic to social inequalities like gender, caste systems, or tribal affiliations.
5. POOR EDUCATION
Not every person without an education is living in extreme poverty. But most of the extremely poor don’t have an education.
6. Climate change.
7. Lack of infrastructure.
8. Limited capacity of the government. Over the past 30 years, China has experienced the highest growth rate in corresponding headcount ratio falling from 64% to 10%. This did not occur merely as a result of high growth. Policies actively encouraged modern-sector on its long-standing efforts to provide at least minimal education and health enlargement. Moreover, China has worked with the World Bank and other de
the poor in China fell from 634 million in 1981 to 128 million in 2004, with the
the world and also the most dramatic reductions in poverty. The headcount of
development agencies to improve its poverty reduction programs and has built
care for its people as a firm foundation for long-term progress.
Q9b. Concern believes that zero extreme poverty is possible, and so we’re working to tackle the root causes of poverty. Learn more about how Concern is helping sustainable growth; at the same time, growth does not guarantee poverty reduction.

Q10Rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations? Do large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity?
There are at least five reasons why policies
the conditions for rapid economic growth and a broader popular participation
Second, a wealth of empirical data bears witness to the fact that unlike the
thereby lead directly and indirectly to a slower growing economy. Strategies to raise growth to be less than what it would be if there were greater equality.
substantial absolute poverty can act as powerful material and psychological
save and invest substantial proportions of their incomes in the local economy.
First,widespread poverty creates conditions in which the poor have no access to the rich tend to spend more of their additional incomes on imported luxury historical experience of the now developed countries, the rich in many contemplating acting as a powerful material and psychological incentive to widespread public participation.
Third, the low incomes and low levels of living for the poor, which are manifested in the economy.
Fourth,raising the income levels of the poor will stimulate an overall increase in
source of old-age financial security. Together these factors cause per capita
physical or monetary investment opportunities, have many children as a
the incomes and levels of living of the poor would therefore contribute not
the economy as a whole.
Fiftha reduction of mass poverty can stimulate healthy economic expansion by anticipation in the development process. By contrast, wide income disparities and goods. Rising demand for local goods provides a greater stimulus to local problems focused toward reducing poverty levels need not lead to a slower rate of growth.
reduction, local employment, and local investment. Such demand thus creates
only to their material wellbeing but also to the productivity and income of
credit,are unable to finance their children’s education and in the absence of diseases in poor health, nutrition, and education, can lower their economic productivity and temporary poor countries are generallynotnoted for their frugality or for their desire to the demand for locally producednecessity productslike food and clothing, whereas
disincentivesto economic progress. That dramatic reductions in poverty need not be incompatible with high growth is seen both in case studies and in the cross-national comparisons of data. Countries where poverty has been reduced the most tend to have had economic growth.

Q11. Why is there so much unemployment and underemployment in the developing world, especially in the cities, and why do people continue to migrate to the cities from rural areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job are very slim?
Answer:
✓Lack of Physical Capital Relative to Labour Force: Keynesian theory is mainly concerned with cyclical unemployment, which emerges in the developed capitalist countries, especially in times of depression.Keynes analysed this type of unemployment and asserted that it was caused by deficiency of aggregate demand.
The existence of unemployment due to lack of capital or other co-operating factors was an important question which was discussed by Marx in the context of advanced industrialized countries. Therefore such unemployment has often been called Maxian unemployment as distinguished from Keynesian unemployment which is caused by the deficiency aggregated demand.
✓ Lack of Wage Goods and Unemployment in Developing Countries:
It is worth mentioning a dissenting view regarding the cause of unemployment and under­employment in developing countries. the basic cause of unemployment in developing countries is the deficiency of the availability of essential consumer goods, often called wage goods.
✓ Causes of Unemployment in Developing Countries:
1. Lack of the Stock of Physical Capital.
2. Use of Capital Intensive Techniques.
3. Inequitable Distribution of Land.
4. Rigid Protective Labour Legislation.
5. Neglect of the Role of Agriculture in Employment Generation.
B. Migration is a way to move from one place to another in order to live and work. Movement of people from their home to another city, state or country for a job, shelter or some other reasons is called migration.
There are less earning opportunities in villages. There are hospitals with lack of facilities. People are not aware of new technological advancements. Quality of education is poor as compared to a city.

Q12. Wealthier societies are also healthier ones because they have more resources for improving nutrition and health care. But does better health also help spur successful development?
Answer: Health is wealth.
reasons:
1. Good health leads to high level of production or increased output.
2. Good health encourages savings and investment as money which are supposed to be used to foot birthday bills are channelled into more productive uses.
3. Good health Spurs Mental stability, as there will be less mentally depressed souls out there.
4. Increased per capita income.
5. Improve standard of living
6. Increase number of healthy workforce.
7. Improvement of other sectors of the Economy due to the fact that government expenditure could be channel to other productive uses.

Q13. What is the impact of public health on the prospects for development, and what is needed to address these problems?
Answer: It would therefore appear that poor health is a key factor in explaining the existence of persistent underdevelopment in many regions of the world. It has long been known that poverty and underdevelopment play
a significant role in the prevalence of malnutrition, the lack of access to safe water and sanitation and the resultant profusion of waterborne diseases, and the general lack of poor health rather than the aggregate measure of life expectancy and by directly has generally not been quantified at a macroeconomic level until relatively recently.
Macroeconomics and Health, chaired by Jeffrey Sachs, suggests that interest in the macroeconomic implications of poor health is increasing of medical services and preventative medicine. However, a reversal of this relationship, with poor health itself contributing to poverty and underdevelopment,
has generally not been quantified at a macroeconomic level until relatively recently. We have tried to improve on theexisting literature by looking at three specific aspects of poor health rather than the aggregate measure of life expectancy and by directly estimating the effect of health on total factor productivity, rather than economic growth. It has long been known that poverty and underdevelopment play an important role where countries will be needed. It would appear that only increased and re-prioritised.
We have tried to improve on the existing literature by looking at three specific aspects published in December 2001 (WHO, 2001), firmly states that poor health within a
a significant role in the prevalence of malnutrition, the lack of access to safe water and sanitation can have severe implications for that nation’s macroeconomic performance.
The recent creation of the World Health Organization’s (WHO) Commission on
global commitment to tackle health issues. This commitment must come from low the vicious cycle that links poor health and poverty.

Thank you.

AJA NNENWOGO
YEAR OF STUDY: 3/5
DEPARTMENT: EDUCATION/ECONOMICS

6. Which are the most influential theories of development, and are they compatible? Is underdevelopment an internally (domestically) or externally (internationally) induced phenomenon?
a) Mercantilism: Mercantilism is thought to be one of the earliest forms of development economics that created practices to promote the success of a nation. Mercantilism held that a nation’s prosperity depended on its supply of capital, represented by bullion (gold, silver, and trade value) held by the state. It emphasised the maintenance of a high positive trade balance (maximising exports and minimizing imports) as a means of accumulating this bullion. To achieve a positive trade balance, protectionist measures such as tariffs and subsidies to home industries were advocated. Mercantilist development theory also advocated colonialism.
b) Economic Nationalism: Following mercantilism was the related theory of economic nationalism, promulgated in the 19th century related to the development and industrialization of the United States and Germany, notably in the policies of the American System in America and the Zollverein (customs union) in Germany. A significant difference from mercantilism was the de-emphasis on colonies, in favor of a focus on domestic production.
c) Linear-stages-of-growth model: An early theory of development economics, the linear-stages-of-growth model was first formulated in the 1950s by W. W. Rostow in The Stages of Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto, following work of Marx and List. This theory modifies Marx’s stages theory of development and focuses on the accelerated accumulation of capital, through the utilization of both domestic and international savings as a means of spurring investment, as the primary means of promoting economic growth and, thus, development. The linear-stages-of-growth model posits that there are a series of five consecutive stages of development that all countries must go through during the process of development. These stages are “the traditional society, the pre-conditions for take-off, the take-off, the drive to maturity, and the age of high mass-consumption”
d) Structural-change theory: Structural-change theory deals with policies focused on changing the economic structures of developing countries from being composed primarily of subsistence agricultural practices to being a “more modern, more urbanized, and more industrially diverse manufacturing and service economy.” There are two major forms of structural-change theory: W. Lewis’ two-sector surplus model, which views agrarian societies as consisting of large amounts of surplus labor which can be utilized to spur the development of an urbanized industrial sector, and Hollis Chenery’s patterns of development approach, which holds that different countries become wealthy via different trajectories. The pattern that a particular country will follow, in this framework, depends on its size and resources, and potentially other factors including its current income level and comparative advantages relative to other nations.
underdevelopment is due to the historical evolution of a highly unequal international capitalist system of rich country-poor country relationships. Developed nations are intentionally exploitative or unintentionally neglectful towards developing countries. Underdevelopment is thus externally induced. Developing countries are destined to be the sweatshops of the rich nations (through their multinationals for example) and depend on developed nations for manufacturing goods that are high-value-added. Many developing countries were forced to become exporters of primary commodities by their colonial masters. Many of these countries still depend on primary commodities after independence.
7. What constraints most hold back accelerated growth, depending on local conditions?
I. Literacy :-The literacy rate is very low in the under developed countries. It reduces the rate of economic growth.
II. Productive inefficiency: Producers in less developed countries may not be able to produce at the lowest possible average cost. This may be because of the failure to apply technology to production, using obsolete technology, or because of the inability to achieve economies of scale. Opening up the economy to free trade may help reduce this type of inefficiency, and encourage technology transfer.
III. Allocative inefficiency: When developing economies remain closed to competition, when they are dominated by local monopolies, or when production is in the hands of the state, prices might not reflect the marginal cost of production.
IV. Population: Population is a considerable constraint on economic growth, either, and most commonly, because there is too a high rate of population growth for the country’s current resources, or because the population is growing too slowly or declining as a result of war, famine, or disease. Many economists see population growth as the single biggest issue facing developing countries.

8. How can improvements in the role and status of women have an especially beneficial impact on development prospects?
– Increased number of educated individuals: The level of human capital in an economy is a function of the level of educated, highly-skilled workers in that economy. To achieve development, high quality education must be embraced. Research has it that the level of literacy attained by women (through formal education) has significant impact on the development of their children. By increasing the role and status of women, they will be encouraged to embrace education and even pass it down to their children, and thus, increase development prospects.
– Reduces overpopulation: Improvements in the role of women can help to prevent or manage population explosion. This is another aspect that is plaguing some developing countries. By upgrading the roles of women in the society and engaging them in activities that increases the value of a women beyond common housewives, they take responsibility and support the goal of achieving inclusive economic development.
– Quality workforce in the long run: With increased role and status of women through effective policies that create disincentives to be an illiterate or have an illiterate child, the quality of the labour force will increase in the long run, and thus, the overall productivity of the nation.

9. What are the causes of extreme poverty, and what policies have been most effective for improving the lives of the poorest of the poor?
CAUSES OF EXTREME POVERTY
•Poor healthcare system- Especially for mothers and children
• Inequality and marginalization
•Lack of reserves
• Conflict
•Hunger, malnutrition and stunting
•Climate change
•Lack of government support
•Lack of education
•Little or no access to clean water, sanitation and hygiene
•Poor public works and infrastructure
•Lack of jobs or livelihood
POLICES TO REDUCE POVERTY
In summary, to reduce poverty, government policies could include:
– Minimum wages. Regulation of labour markets, for example, statutory minimum wages
– Direct provision of goods/services – subsidized housing, free education and healthcare.
– Means-tested welfare benefits to the poorest in society; for example, unemployment benefit, food stamps, income support and housing benefit.
– Free market policies to promote economic growth – hoping that rising living standards will filter down to the poorest in society.

10. Rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations? Do large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity?
Underdevelopment, resource scarcity, and environmental degradation are cardinal, even existential, threats to human security. These challenges not only threaten human life and well-being, but also impact the global geopolitical and economic landscape. Chronic underdevelopment condemns more than 1 billion people to lives of poverty, illness, and poor political and economic prospects. Long-term goals of economic and human development are undermined by scarce, unreliable, or unaffordable supplies of vital resources such as food, water, and energy. Climate change threatens to exacerbate the effects of environmental degradation, putting land and livelihoods at grave risk. These challenges are deeply interconnected and global in scope; for developing countries, they can be fatal burdens. Poverty, hunger, and disease feed off each other, plaguing huge numbers of people, while water scarcity and desertification threaten to set back major improvements in development. As rapid population growth strains already scarce natural resources, increasing urbanization puts additional pressure on infrastructures that are already weak. Meanwhile, the looming effects of climate change threaten large populations in vulnerable geographic areas, where natural disasters and environmental damage are likely to dispro￾portionately affect the world’s poor. Large families do not make economic sense in a poverty infested economy.

11. Why is there so much unemployment and underemployment in the developing world, especially in the cities, and why do people continue to migrate to the cities from rural areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job are very slim?
There are so many reasons for unemployment and underemployment in developing countries,some of them are:
LACK OF INFRASTRUCTURE: Lack of infrastructure such as roads, power, telecommunications, highways, irrigation facilities in agriculture are one of the multiple causes of unemployment.
All these inadequacies scare of investors who would have invested in the countries and thereby created hop opportunities by doing business here. Inadequate availability of infrastructure is a great obstacle for the generation of opportunities for productive employment.
USE OF CAPITAL INTENSIVE TECHNIQUES: An important factor responsible for slow growth of employment has been the use of capital intensive techniques of production. Private sector prefers to invest in highly capital-intensive plants and equipment on the basis of technology developed in labour- scarce western countries.Even firms in modern small industry sector which were expected to generate large employment opportunities have also tended to use capital-intensive techniques of production. This is because of the availability of cheap capital that encourages the modern small-scale industries sector to over-capitalize and use more capital-intensive methods of production and thus reduce employment potential.
NEGLECT OF THE ROLE OF AGRICULTURE IN EMPLOYMENT GENERATION: An important factor responsible for slow growth of employment opportunities is the neglect of agriculture for generating employment opportunities. Agriculture though containing surplus labour can generate employment opportunities if proper strategy for its development is adopted. In the past, agriculture was the main source of employment for the people. This was before the shift towards industrialisation, In recent days,agriculture has been neglected and not widely practiced.

12. Wealthier societies are also healthier ones because they have more resources for improving nutrition and health care. But does better health also help spur successful development?
Health play a pivotal role in economic development, as it serves as an input into production enabling higher incomes and outputs directly affecting human well-being. Many health problems plague developing countries, ranging from simple malaria to heavy disease burdens. Moreover, the wrong kinds of government policies have sometimes led to distortions in the health system that have reinforced inequality, which is quite common. Better health help spur successful development Health will not always automatically improve with higher incomes. And market failures mean that too few investments in health will be made from the social point of view. Thus, government has a vital role to play in health-related issues, and in most developing countries, considerable improvements in policy are needed.
13. What is the impact of poor public health on the prospects for development, and what is needed to address these problems?
Individuals suffering from illness may be weak, unable to work or study and generally unable to provide for children and other dependants. At a more aggregated level, however, it seems likely that a high disease burden may have an adverse impact on a country’s productivity, growth and, ultimately, economic development. Poverty can affect children’s cognitive development, and those living in poverty are over three times more likely to suffer from mental health problems. … Most individual long-term conditions are more than twice as common in adults from lower socio-economic groups, and mental health problems are much more prevalent.
13B). Reinstate good healthcare: When a person is healthy, they can go to work, participate in community events (like voting or meetings) and can better contribute to society. Making sure a country has good healthcare is essential to alleviating poverty. This involves widespread vaccinations, investing in better hospitals and resources, training medical professionals and improving hygiene on a national level.
Improve the training of farmers: It is so important for developing countries that their agriculture is not only thriving but is sustainable. Teaching sustainable techniques to farmers is one of the ways that demonstrates how to solve poverty, because when a country’s natural resources are at their top potential, so is its economy. Teaching methods to sustain agriculture, investing in proper equipment and instructing farmers on more efficient practices will also improve the quality of life for the farmers themselves.
Establish gender equality: When asking how to solve poverty globally, a trend keeps popping up: many poverty-stricken countries lack gender equality. The fact is that when women are allowed to participate in the economy through new laws, social acceptance and proper child care for their family, the country thrives. Since roughly half of any country’s population is made up of women, it is not only arguably a moral obligation, but a practical solution for how to solve poverty. Gender equality can mean getting religious leaders involved, spreading awareness through the country’s media with women depicted as capable and even educating the women themselves on their rights.

Nwokolo Emmanuel Chibuike
Economics Department
2018/248270
300 level
Question: Which are the most influential theories of development, and are they compatible? Is underdevelopment and internally ( domestically) or externally (internationally) induced phenomenon?
Answers:
6 : Development theories :
Structuralism :
Structuralists argue that the only way Third World countries can develop is through action by the state. Third world countries have to push industrialization and have to reduce their dependency on trade with the First World, and trade among themselves.
This structural transformation of the developing country is pursued in order to create an economy which in the end enjoys self-sustaining growth. This can only be reached by ending the reliance of the underdeveloped country on exports of primary goods (agricultural and mining products), and pursuing inward-oriented development by shielding the domestic economy from that of the developed economies. Trade with advanced economies is minimized through the erection of all kinds of trade barriers and an overvaluation of the domestic exchange rate; in this way the production of domestic substitutes of formerly imported industrial products is encouraged. The logic of the strategy rests on the infant industry argument, which states that young industries initially do not have the economies of scale and experience to be able to compete with foreign competitors and thus need to be protected until they are able to compete in the free market.[9] The Prebisch–Singer hypothesis states that over time the terms of trade for commodities deteriorate compared to those for manufactured goods, because the income elasticity of demand of manufactured goods is greater than that of primary products. If true, this would also support the ISI strategy.
Is a development theory which focuses on structural aspects which impede the economic growth of developing countries.

The unit of analysis is the transformation of a country’s economy from, mainly, a subsistence agriculture to a modern, urbanized manufacturing and service economy. Policy prescriptions resulting from structuralist thinking include major government intervention in the economy to fuel the industrial sector, known as import substitution industrialization (ISI).

The basic needs model :
It tried to define an absolute minimum of resources necessary for long-term physical well-being. The poverty line which follows from this, is the amount of income needed to satisfy those basic needs. The approach has been applied in the sphere of development assistance, to determine what a society needs for subsistence, and for poor population groups to rise above the poverty line. Basic needs theory does not focus on investing in economically productive activities. Basic needs can be used as an indicator of the absolute minimum an individual needs to survive.
It was introduced by the International Labour Organization in 1976, mainly in reaction to prevalent modernization- and structuralism-inspired development approaches, which were not achieving satisfactory results in terms of poverty alleviation and combating inequality in developing countries.

Neoclassical development theory has it origins in its predecessor:
Neoclassical development theory became influential towards the end of the 1970s, fired by the election of Margaret Thatcher in the UK and Ronald Reagan in the USA. Also, the World Bank shifted from its Basic Needs approach to a neoclassical approach in 1980. From the beginning of the 1980s, neoclassical development theory really began to roll out.

NO. 7 Constraints to accelerated growth :

1. Lack of interaction between the government and society:
Good leadership will provide an enabling environment for people to enjoy quality governance and justice. Good governance starts with us; we are also responsible for this situation in the country.
Therefore, the government should include processes and mechanisms for citizens and groups to articulate their interests, mediate their differences, and work together.
The problem is standing in the first row, among other basic economic problems facing Nigeria.

2. Nature of the market :
A lack of authentic competition in the system is among the problems facing the economy. Market forces guide actual capitalistic economics. The self-regulating character of the market defines where one works and lives, how much one earns, and what he/she can buy. By the way, each economy needs some form of government interference. But we are not talking about a monopoly. Good market governance must work hand in hand with healthy competition. Unfortunately, Nigeria is not among the countries where these two exist in one dimension. In Nigeria, the federal government has a valid monopoly of setting the price of products and other services and goods.

3. Environment and health issues :
The health and environmental standards of the country are in deplorable condition. In 2015, Amnesty International announced that Nigeria experiences hundreds of oil spills annually in the Niger Delta, mainly because of sabotage, pipe erosion, and uncaring attitude by oil firms. This is also responsible for the hike in oil prices.
Oil spills wilt the soil nutrients and other essential elements. This weakening can damage the communities that farm and fish in the Niger Delta and the general economy.
Litters and waste products are strewn all over the streets and roads in Nigeria. Improperly disposed rubbish promotes the spread of diseases, and this will end up affecting the Nigerian economy.
Another main problem facing the country’s economy is the health issue. People suffer from a lack of medicines and inexperienced doctors with bad education. What is more, corruption abounds in this area? In our country, if you have no money, you will not get proper treatment.

8. How can improvements in the role and status of women have an especially beneficial impact on development prospects?

As a study from the IMF shows, policies that improve access to educational opportunities and finance for women can contribute to a reduction in inequality and an increase in economic growth for the developing country. Providing women and girls with more educational opportunities contributes to: “reductions in fertility rates and increases in labour force participation rates, and in which thereby better quality of human capital of the future economy and generations.”
Giving women greater economic empowerment means enabling women to increase their right to economic resources and their control over meaningful decisions that benefit themselves, their households and their communities. These include the right to control their own time, their income and access to participation in existing markets equally. Greater empowerment improves their well-being and economic status.
Empowering more women to work, results in better growth of third-world economies. This is because women’s economic empowerment, increases economic diversification, boosts productivity and income equality, resulting in other positive development outcomes.

9. What are the causes of extreme poverty and what policies have been most effective for improving the lives of the poorest of the poor?

Some of the causes of extreme poverty include:
Poor Access to Healthcare
Effective policies for Improving the lives of the poorest of the poor among others are:
Access to Healthcare
Lack of Economic Infrastructure
Poor Access to Education
Equality and Representation for all
Increased Access to Education
Micro-financing
Job Creation

Poor Access to Education
Economic infrastructure is not the only infrastructure that is lacking in Nigeria. Currently, a lack of a robust educational system underserves many of the poorest Nigerians. 10.5 million Nigerian children do not attend school at all, and 60% of those children are girls.
These problems are especially profound in the northern, more rural parts of Nigeria. Terrorist groups such as Boko Haram that vilify Western education further exasperate the situation.

Poor Access to Healthcare
Nigeria might be the most populous country in Africa, but they are running low on healthcare professionals. The current ratio of nurses, midwives and doctors to patients is 1.95 to 1,000. With such a low density of medical care available, many people in Nigeria either go completely without medical care or without enough medical care. But sickness is costly, and oftentimes can trap people into never-ending cycles of poverty.

Lack of Economic Infrastructure
An infrastructure that supports economic growth at every level is essential to pull people out of poverty. In Nigeria, economic infrastructure includes things like access to micro-credit that help farmers invest in their crops and entrepreneurs lift their businesses off the ground. Micro-credit is an especially important tool for Nigerian women working to escape poverty.
Female entrepreneurship and autonomy can provide financial stability to entire families and, by extension, larger communities. Another one of the main causes of poverty in Nigeria is the simple fact that many Nigerians, especially in rural communities, do not have the means to escape their circumstances.

Solutions to Poverty
END WAR AND CONFLICT
No war means that budgets allocated to cover the cost of conflict can be used to deliver public services. It also reduces risks faced by the most vulnerable communities, and ensures that goals towards equality and inclusion can be maintained.

IMPROVE FOOD SECURITY AND ACCESS TO CLEAN WATER
Simply eating three meals a day and getting a healthy amount of calories and nutrients can go a long way to addressing the cycle of poverty. When a person doesn’t have enough to eat, they lack the strength and energy needed to work. Contaminated water can lead to debilitating illnesses.
What’s more, improving access to clean water can mean that those who live in rural communities (often women and girls — see our first point on marginalization and equality) will save time walking to their nearest water point.

BUILDING RESILIENCE — CLIMATE AND OTHERWISE.
Poverty is most likely to occur when there is a high combination of marginalization and risk — with risk being its own combination of a person or group’s level of vulnerability and the hazards they face.

10) Rapid growth has led to uncontrolled urbanization, which has produced overcrowding, destitution, crime, pollution, and political turmoil. Rapid growth has outstripped increases in food production, and population pressure has led to the overuse of arable land and its destruction. Rapid growth has also hampered economic development and caused massive unemployment. Food scarcity effects economic development in two respects. Firstly, inadequate supply of food leads to undernourishment of the people which lowers their productivity. It further reduces the production capacity of the workers, Secondly, the deficiency of food compels to import food grains which places as unnecessarily strain on their foreign exchange resources. Rapid growth of population is largely responsible for the perpetuation of vicious circle of poverty in underdeveloped countries. On account of rapid growth of population people are required to spend a major part of their income on bringing up their children.

Thus savings and rate of capital formation remain low, reduction in per capita income, rise in general price level leading to sharp rise in cost of living. No improvement in agricultural and industrial technology, shortage of essential commodities, low standard of living, mass unemployment etc. As a result the entire economy of an underdeveloped country is surrounded by the vicious circle of poverty.

11) It is now almost universally recognized that the chronic unemployment and underemployment in less developed countries are not due to the lack of aggregate effective demand which, according to J.M. Keynes, was responsible for unemployment in developed countries in times of depression. Rather it is stated to be due to the lack of land, capital and other complementary resources in relation to the total population and labour force.
Now, if the population grows faster than the stock of capital of a country, the entire addition to the labour force cannot be absorbed in productive employment because not enough instruments of production would be there to employ them. Since in less developed countries, the stock of capital has not been growing at a rate fast enough to keep pace with the growth of population, the ability to offer productive employment is very limited.
Capital as the major bottleneck to growth of employment was made popular by Harrod-Domar model of economic growth in which capital accumulation plays a pivotal role and according to which rate of growth of output depends upon the proportion of national income saved, divided by the capital-output ratio (g = s/v, where g stands for growth rate, s for the proportion of income saved and v for the capital-output ratio).

12) There are a few reason why i believe that better health also help spur successful development in societies with wealthier people.
First of all, it is a well known fact that rich people try their very best to stay healthy all the time, with proper dieting and exercise.
Secondly, in a situation where people are taking good care of their health, they will fall sick less times in a year.
And with this, the government expenditure on the health sector can be reduced and money can be channelee to other sectors which leads to successful development

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*Name:* Chinekezie Oluchi Faustina
*Reg no:* 2018/249787
Dept: Economics major

6. Which are the most influential theories of development, and are they compatible? Is underdevelopment an internally (domestically) or externally (internationally) induced phenomenon?

7. What constraints most hold back accelerated growth, depending on local conditions?

8. How can improvements in the role and status of women have an especially beneficial impact on development prospects?

9. What are the causes of extreme poverty, and what policies have been most effective for improving the lives of the poorest of the poor?

10. Rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations? Do large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity?

11. Why is there so much unemployment and underemployment in the developing world, especially in the cities, and why do people continue to migrate to the cities from rural areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job are very slim?

12 Wealthier societies are also healthier ones because they have more resources for improving nutrition and health care. But does better health also help spur successful development?

13. What is the impact of poor public health on the prospects for development, and what is needed to address these problems?

Answers:

6. i. Modernization theory – is used to analyze the processes in which modernization in societies take place. The theory looks at which aspects of countries are beneficial and which constitute obstacles for economic development. The idea is that development assistance targeted at those particular aspects can lead to modernization of ‘traditional’ or ‘backward’ societies. Scientists from various research disciplines have contributed to modernization theory.

ii. Dependency theory – is essentially a follow up to structuralist thinking, and shares many of its core ideas. Whereas structuralists did not consider that development would be possible at all unless a strategy of delinking and rigorous ISI was pursued, dependency thinking could allow development with external links with the developed parts of the globe. However, this kind of development is considered to be “dependent development”, i.e., it does not have an internal domestic dynamic in the developing country and thus remains highly vulnerable to the economic vagaries of the world market. Dependency thinking starts from the notion that resources flow from the ‘periphery’ of poor and underdeveloped states to a ‘core’ of wealthy countries, which leads to accumulation of wealth in the rich states at the expense of the poor states. Contrary to modernization theory, dependency theory states that not all societies progress through similar stages of development. Periphery states have unique features, structures and institutions of their own and are considered weaker with regards to the world market economy, while the developed nations have never been in this colonized position in the past. Dependency theorists argue that underdeveloped countries remain economically vulnerable unless they reduce their connections to the world market.[10][11]

Dependency theory states that poor nations provide natural resources and cheap labor for developed nations, without which the developed nations could not have the standard of living which they enjoy. When underdeveloped countries try to remove the Core’s influence, the developed countries hinder their attempts to keep control. This means that poverty of developing nations is not the result of the disintegration of these countries in the world system, but because of the way in which they are integrated into this system.

In addition to its structuralist roots, dependency theory has much overlap with Neo-Marxism and World Systems Theory, which is also reflected in the work of Immanuel Wallerstein, a famous dependency theorist. Wallerstein rejects the notion of a Third World, claiming that there is only one world which is connected by economic relations (World Systems Theory). He argues that this system inherently leads to a division of the world in core, semi-periphery and periphery. One of the results of expansion of the world-system is the commodification of things, like natural resources, labor and human relationships.[12][13]

iii. Neoclassical development theory – has it origins in its predecessor: classical economics. Classical economics was developed in the 18th and 19th centuries and dealt with the value of products and on which production factors it depends. Early contributors to this theory are Adam Smith and David Ricardo. Classical economists argued – as do the neoclassical ones – in favor of the free market, and against government intervention in those markets. The ‘invisible hand’ of Adam Smith makes sure that free trade will ultimately benefit all of society. John Maynard Keynes was a very influential classical economist as well, having written his General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money in 1936.

Neoclassical development theory became influential towards the end of the 1970s, fired by the election of Margaret Thatcher in the UK and Ronald Reagan in the USA. Also, the World Bank shifted from its Basic Needs approach to a neoclassical approach in 1980. From the beginning of the 1980s, neoclassical development theory really began to roll out.

7. SOCIAL OBSTACLES
Following are the important social obstacles in the way of economic development :

i. Joint Family System :-
In many countries like India and Pakistan this system is still available. All the members of the family live together. Few of them work hard while the others do nothing, except quarreling with one another. So due to this reason national product reduces.

ii. Literacy :-
The literacy rate is very low in the under developed countries. It reduces the rate of economic growth. In Indian and Pakistan…

8. Women’s economic empowerment is central to realizing women’s rights and gender equality. Women’s economic empowerment includes women’s ability to participate equally in existing markets; their access to and control over productive resources, access to decent work, control over their own time, lives and bodies; and increased voice, agency and meaningful participation in economic decision-making at all levels from the household to international institutions.
Empowering women in the economy and closing gender gaps in the world of work are key to achieving the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development [1] and achieving the Sustainable Development Goals, particularly Goal 5, to achieve gender equality, and Goal 8, to promote full and productive employment and decent work for all; also Goal 1 on ending poverty, Goal 2 on food security, Goal 3 on ensuring health and Goal 10 on reducing inequalities.
When more women work, economies grow. Women’s economic empowerment boosts productivity, increases economic diversification and income equality in addition to other positive development outcomes.[2] For example, increasing the female employment rates in OECD countries to match that of Sweden, could boost GDP by over USD 6 trillion,[3] recognizing, however, that. growth does not automatically lead to a reduction in gender-based inequality. Conversely, it is estimated that gender gaps cost the economy some 15 percent of GDP.[4]
Increasing women’s and girls’ educational attainment contributes to women’s economic empowerment and more inclusive economic growth. Education, upskilling and re-skilling over the life course – especially to keep pace with rapid technological and digital transformations affecting jobs—are critical for women’s and girl’s health and wellbeing, as well as their income-generation opportunities and participation in the formal labour market. Increased educational attainment accounts for about 50 per cent of the economic growth in OECD countries over the past 50 years.[5] But, for the majority of women, significant gains in education have not translated into better labour market outcomes.[6]
Women’s economic equality is good for business. Companies greatly benefit from increasing employment and leadership opportunities for women, which is shown to increase organizational effectiveness and growth. It is estimated that companies with three or more women in senior management functions score higher in all dimensions of organizational performance.[7]

9. i. Inadequate access to clean water and nutritious food

Currently, more than 2 billion people don’t have access to clean water at home, while over 800 million suffer from hunger. You might think that poverty causes hunger and prevents people from accessing clean water (and you would be right!), but hunger and water insecurity are also big reasons why people struggle to escape extreme poverty.

If a person doesn’t get enough food, they simply don’t have the strength and energy needed to work, while lack of access to food and clean water can also lead to preventable illnesses like diarrhea. And when people must travel far distances to clinics or spend what little money remains on medicine, it drains already vulnerable populations of money and assets, and can knock a family from poverty into extreme poverty.

Even if clean water sources are available, they’re often located far from poor, rural communities. This means that women and girls collectively spend some 200 million hours every day walking long distances to fetch water. That’s precious time that could be used working, or getting an education to help secure a job later in life.

ii. Little or no access to livelihoods or jobs

This might seem a bit like a “no brainer.” Without a job or a way to make money, people will face poverty. But it’s easy to assume that if someone wants a job, they could have one. That just isn’t true, particularly in developing and rural parts of the world. Dwindling access to productive land (often due to conflict, overpopulation, or climate change), and overexploitation of resources like fish or minerals is putting increasing pressure on many traditional livelihoods. In the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) for example, most of the population lives in rural communities where natural resources have been plundered over centuries of colonialism — while conflict over land disputes has forced people from the land they relied upon for food and money. Now, more than half of the country lives in extreme poverty. While inconsistent work and low paying jobs can land a family in poverty, absolutely no work means that a family can’t get by without assistance.
iii. Conflict

Conflict can cause poverty in several ways. Large scale, protracted violence that we see in places like Syria can grind society to a halt, destroy infrastructure, and cause people to flee, forcing families to sell or leave behind all their assets. In Syria, around 70% of the entire population now lives below the poverty line — this in a country where extreme poverty was once very rare. Women often bear the brunt of conflict: during periods of violence, female-headed households become very common. And because women often have difficulty getting well-paying work and are typically excluded from community decision-making, their families are particularly vulnerable.

But even small bouts of violence can have huge impacts on communities that are already struggling. For example, if farmers are worried about their crops being stolen, they won’t invest in planting. Women are particularly vulnerable in these kinds of conflicts, too, as they often become the targets of sexual violence while fetching water or working alone in the fields.

iv. Inequality

There are many different types of inequality in the world, from economic to social inequalities like gender, caste systems, or tribal affiliations. But no matter the inequality, it generally means the same thing: unequal or no access to the resources needed to keep or lift a family out of poverty.

Sometimes inequalities are obvious, but in other situations, it can be subtle — for example, the voices of certain people or groups might not be heard in community meetings, meaning they don’t get a say in important decisions. Regardless, these inequalities mean that the people affected don’t have the tools they desperately need to get ahead, and for already vulnerable families, this can mean the difference between being poor or living in extreme poverty.

v. Poor education

Not every person without an education is living in extreme poverty. But most of the extremely poor don’t have an education. And why is that? There’s a lot of barriers stopping children from going to school. Many families can’t afford to send their children to school and need them to work. More still don’t see a benefit in educating girls. Education is often referred to as the great equalizer, and that’s because education can open the door to jobs and other resources and skills that a family needs to not just survive, but thrive. UNESCO estimates that 171 million people could be lifted out of extreme poverty if they left school with basic reading skills. And, with even more education, world poverty could be cut in half.

vi. Climate change

You might be stunned to learn that the World Bank estimates that climate change has the power to push more than 100 million people into poverty over the next ten years. As it is, climate events like drought, flooding, and severe storms disproportionately impact communities already living in poverty. Why? Because many of the world’s poorest populations rely on farming or hunting and gathering to eat and earn a living. They often have only just enough food and assets to last through the next season, and not enough reserves to fall back on in the event of a poor harvest. So when natural disasters (including the widespread droughts caused by El Niño) leave millions of people without food, it pushes them further into poverty, and can make recovery even more difficult.

vii. Lack of infrastructure

Imagine that you have to go to work, or to the store, but there are no roads to get you there. Or heavy rains have flooded your route and made it impassable. What would you do then? A lack of infrastructure — from roads, bridges, and wells to cables for light, cell phones, and internet — can isolate communities living in rural areas. Living “off the grid” means the inability to go to school, work, or market to buy and sell goods. Traveling farther distances to access basic services not only takes time, it costs money, keeping families in poverty. Isolation limits opportunity, and without opportunity, many find it difficult, if not impossible, to escape extreme poverty.

viii. Limited capacity of the government

Many people living in the United States are familiar with social welfare programs that people can access if they need healthcare or food assistance. But not every government can provide this type of help to its citizens — and without that safety net, there’s nothing to stop vulnerable families from backsliding further into extreme poverty if something goes wrong. Ineffective governments also contribute to several of the other causes of extreme poverty mentioned above, as they are unable to provide necessary infrastructure or ensure the safety and security of their citizens in the event of conflict.

ix. Lack of reserves

People living in poverty don’t have the means to weather the storms of life. So when there is a drought, or conflict, or illness, there is little money saved or assets on hand to help. In Ethiopia for example, repeated cycles of drought have caused harvest after harvest to fail, causing a widespread hunger crisis. To cope, families will pull their children from school, and sell off everything they own to eat. That can help a family make it through one bad season, but not another. For communities constantly facing climate extremes or prolonged conflict, the repeated shocks can send a family reeling into extreme poverty and prevent them from ever recovering.

Name: Folarin Gift Funmilayo
Reg no: 2018/241234
Department: Education/Economics
Course code: Eco 361
Course title: Development Economics 1

Assignment
1. Which are the most influential theories of development, and are they compatible? Is underdevelopment an internally (domestically) or externally (internationally) induced phenomenon?
There are numerous, competing theories that inform the study of development economics. We will examine three major theories. The approach will be eclectic in the sense that each theory will be examined in terms of its insights into the development process as well as its major weaknesses.
a) CLASSICAL MARXIAN THEORIES
Marx traces the development of the capitalist mode of production from the pre-capitalist era of feudalism. Capitalism first emerged in Europe and was imposed, often violently, on other regions of the world. Earlier mercantilist forms of outright plunder and violent expropriation of land gave rise to the process of “primitive accumulation”. However, Marx argues that the prospects for the development of capitalism crucially depend upon the pre-existing modes of production. He supports this thesis by comparing feudalism with what he describes as the “Asiatic” societies. Whereas the dissolution of feudalism was favourable for the expansion of capitalism in Europe, the opposite is the case in Asia. The reason for this contrast was that feudalism had already developed forms of private ownership, while the Asiatic societies were principally based upon the communal ownership of land.
In Europe, the process of primitive accumulation involved the creation of wage labour, which migrated from the rural hinterland to the industrial regions. The eventual triumph of capitalism will depend largely on the historical conditions, which either promote or retard the development of a market economy. Marx also stressed other factors: the influx of precious metals from the “new world”, the slave trade and the growth of merchant capital (Braudel, 1984). The original Marxian theory had envisaged that capitalism would eventually become the dominant economic system on a world scale. The dynamic “inner laws” of capital, driven by the profit motive and accumulation, attracts into the ambit of world trade, all other pre-capitalist societies. Marx’s earlier writings on colonialism focused on British colonial policy in India. By the nineteenth century, the British East India company had ceased to be profitable as a solely mercantilist enterprise and became a publicly-listed company. As merchant capital, its role in India was wholly destructive because it failed to create the conditions for the growth of capitalism. As soon as it became a capitalist enterprise, however, it acquired the role of industrial capital and began to sow the seeds of capitalist enterprise in India itself.
In other words, Marx argued that the introduction of capitalism in India was a necessary evil. Even though the initial impact of colonial trade was destructive for India, the growth of capitalism would eventually benefit the Indian colony. Furthermore, Marx considers the “Asiatic” mode of production as “pre-historical” in the sense that it had remained in a state of primordial animation and stagnation until contact with European capitalism. The other major classical Marxian source on the theory of imperialism and underdevelopment is V.I Lenin’s Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism. Lenin was influenced by the British historian, J.A. Hobson, Nikolai Bukharin’s Imperialism and the World Economy, and Rudolf Hilferding’s Finance Capital. Imperialism is simply defined as the “monopoly stage of capitalism” in which finance capital plays a dominant role as it merges with industrial capital. Furthermore, Lenin highlighted the crucial importance of the export of capital, the escalation of rivalries between competing monopolies and the territorial division of the world between the major imperialist powers.
b) NEO-MARXIAN THEORIES
The failure of capitalism to encourage economic development in the former colonial regions as Marx had envisaged, gave rise to the neo-Marxian theories of underdevelopment. Despite the diversity of views within the neo-Marxian paradigm, there is a consensus that the modern capitalist system can be divided into an advanced “centre” or metropolis, and an underdeveloped “periphery”. The causes of this underdevelopment become the central focus of analysis. Lenin and Bukharin’s theories of imperialism provide the initial inspiration for this revival of interest. Another important source has been Rosa Luxemburg’s The Accumulation of Capital, in which she poses the problem of the “realisation” of surplus value from Marx’s reproduction schemes in volume 2 of Capital. Luxemburg posed the problem in terms of the relationship between the capitalist and non-capitalist sectors of the economy and argued that capitalism required the non-capitalist sector as an outlet for its surplus in order to expand.
Perhaps the most influential of the neo-Marxian current has been Paul Baran’s seminal work, The Political Economy of Growth. In Paul Baran’s analysis, the causes of underdevelopment are attributed to the legacy of imperialism. To highlight this hypothesis, Baran compares the Indian economy, which had been dominated by British colonialism, with the Japanese experience, which had been relatively free from foreign domination. He then analyses the “distortions” caused by colonialism and argues that foreign outlets for investment were essentially governed by the problem of “surplus absorption” within the imperialist centres. Baran’s analysis also prefigured the “dependency” theorists by asserting that these former colonies are condemned as suppliers of commodities for the world market. The failure to develop a domestic market and the growth of luxury consumption by the privileged oligarchy or the “comprador class,” merely perpetuates this underdevelopment. Baran’s central argument was that economic development was not possible under these conditions of neo-colonialism.
c) DEPENDENCY AND THEORIES OF DUALISM
Dependency theorists assign a modernising role for post-colonial states to induce the process of development. Underdevelopment is viewed as an externally-induced process which is perpetuated by a small but powerful domestic elite who form an alliance with the international capitalist system. The “development of underdevelopment” is therefore systemic and path-dependent. In the study of international political economy, the concept of “hegemony” has acquired a strategic meaning. Whether implicitly or explicitly, the term applies to one country or
a group of nation-states, which form a dominant power bloc within a definite hierarchy of nation-states. In the “world system” literature this configuration is viewed as a zero-sum game between the dominant core, satellite and peripheral states (Wallerstein, 1979 & 2003). A more sophisticated theory of Unequal Exchange was developed by Arghiri Emmanuel (1972), who argued that the international division of labour dictates that the poorer countries produce mostly commodities but high-wage countries produce manufactured goods. Unequal exchange is not so much a consequence of differences in productivity between countries but by the fact that wages are lower precisely because these countries have been designated by the international division of labour to specialise in the production of commodities. From a historical perspective, capital accumulation has been governed by the law of uneven development. The spatial dimension of economic development has been characterised by a core/periphery configuration (Lewis, 1956). One of the seminal theories of this process of circular and cumulative causation was developed by Gunnar Myrdal who argued that capital movements tend to increase regional inequality by concentrating in the more developed regions (Myrdal, 1957). These are identified as the centrifugal, “spread effects” caused by economic expansion in the core regions which diffuse technology, capital investment and a modern infrastructure to the outlying, less developed hinterlands: “In the centres of expansion, increased demand will spur investment, which in turn will increase incomes and demand and cause a second round of investment and so on. Saving will increase as a result of higher incomes but will tend to lag behind investment in the sense that the supply of capital will steadily meet the brisk demand for it” (Myrdal, 1957, p.28). However, the opposite logic of cumulative causation is evident in the less developed regions. These are identified as the “backwash effects” which merely reinforce the structural and socio-economic disadvantages of these regions.

2.. What constraints most hold back accelerated growth, depending on local conditions?
The pace of development can be slowed down, or even reversed, by various factors affecting the economy. Some of these constraints can be dealt with through economic and social policy, while others may be difficult to resolve. The constraints on development include: Inefficiencies within the micro-economy, Imbalances in the structure of the economy, a rapidly growing or declining population, lack of financial capital, lack of human capital and so on.
a) Inefficiency
– Productive inefficiency
Producers in less developed countries may not be able to produce at the lowest possible average cost. This may be because of the failure to apply technology to production, using obsolete technology, or because of the inability to achieve economies of scale. Opening up the economy to free trade may help reduce this type of inefficiency, and encourage technology transfer.
– Allocative inefficiency
When developing economies remain closed to competition, when they are dominated by local monopolies, or when production is in the hands of the state, prices might not reflect the marginal cost of production. Opening up the economy to free trade, and privatisation of industry may help promote a more competitive environment, and reduce allocatively inefficiency.
– ‘X’ Inefficiency
X inefficiency can arise when there is a lack of competition in a market. It is primarily associated with inefficient management, where average cost is above its minimum. Competition is limited in many developing economies, and resources are often allocated by government. This means that inefficient management is common.
– Social inefficiency
Social inefficiency exists when social costs do not equate with social benefits. This can arise when externalities are not taken into account. For example, under-spending on education creates social inefficiency. Some of these inefficiencies are the result of the economy not allowing market forces to operate, while others are the result of market failures. Negative externalities like pollution are often largely uncontrolled in less developed parts of the world, and this imposes a constraint on the sustainability of development.
b) Imbalances
Not all sectors of an economy are capable of growth. For some developing economies, too many scarce resources may be allocated to sectors with little growth potential. This is especially the case with the production of agriculture and commodities.

In these sectors, there is little opportunity for economic growth because the impact of real and human capital development is small, and marginal factor productivity is very low. Failure to allocate scarce resources to where they are most productive can impose a limit on development.
c) Population
Population is a considerable constraint on economic growth, either, and most commonly, because there is too a high rate of population growth for the country’s current resources, or because the population is growing too slowly or declining as a result of war, famine, or disease. Many economists see population growth as the single biggest issue facing developing countries. The line of argument runs as follows:
At first, the take-off phase of development and economic growth creates positive externalities from the application of science and technology to healthcare and education and this leads to a decline in the death rate, but no decline, or even an increase, in the birth rate. Over time life expectancy rises, but the age distribution remains skewed, with an increasing number of dependents in the lower age range. As a result, the number of consumers relative to producers increases. The short-term gains from growth are quickly eroded as GDP per capita actually falls, hence, only when the birth rate falls will GDP per capita rise. In this case, there is a positive role for government in terms of encouraging a lower birth rate.
d) Lack of real capital
Many developing economies do not have sufficient financial capital to engage in public or private investment. There are several reasons for this, including the following:
– Low growth
Growth is not sufficient to allow scarce financial resources to be freed up for non-current expenditure.
– Lack of savings
A general lack of savings is often seen as the key reason why financial capital is in short supply. High interest rates to encourage saving will, of course, deter investment.
– Debts
In the case of public sector funding, spare public funds are often used to repay previous debts, so there are fewer available funds for capital investment by government. This is often called the problem of debt overhang. The recent sovereign debt crisis has highlighted the problems faced by countries with large public debts, and how such debts limit the ability of government to inject spending into a developing economy.
– Crowding out
In addition, because many developing economies have large public sectors, private investment may be crowded out by public sector borrowing. This means that a government may borrow from local capital markets, if indeed they exist, which causes a relative shortage of capital and raises interest rates.
– Absence of credit markets
Finally, there is an absence of credit markets in many developing economies, and this discourages both lenders and borrowers. Credit markets often fail to form because of the extremely high risks associated with lending in developing countries. This is one reason for the importance of micro-finance initiatives commonly found across India, Pakistan and some parts of Africa.
3. How can improvements in the role and status of women have an especially beneficial impact on development prospects?
Economic growth did not necessarily ensure gender equality, but it could only be sustained if matched by advances in the status of women, the representative of Singapore said this morning. He was addressing the Third Committee (Social, Humanitarian and Cultural), as it continued its general debate on the advancement of women and the implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action. He said economic globalization increased direct foreign investment and expanded job opportunities, thus allowing more women to join the workforce and reach decision-making positions. However, the opportunities for income and employment expansion must be seized to promote sustainable development and gender equality. The representative of the Bahamas said although many governments and the United Nations were confronting severe economic and budgetary restraints, there must be innovative ways to fund women’s programmes, and strengthen institutions and mechanisms. The Organization’s hiring freeze should not be an excuse for inaction. Education and training programmes for boys, girls and adults were needed to eliminate a gender-segregated labour market, according to the representative of Denmark. His Government had introduced vocational courses for women within traditionally male-dominated areas and for men in traditionally female-dominated fields. Several other speakers this morning stressed the importance of women’s full participation in development. The representative of Sierra Leone said due to sociocultural beliefs, religious practices and the gender-biased interpretation of laws, women in developing countries suffered unequal treatment, rights and opportunity. Literacy was a high priority, because other initiatives, including political, economic and cultural sensitization, could be easily implemented if women were literate. Statements were also made by Barbados, Iran, Israel, Ghana, Marshall Islands, Kyrgyz Republic, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Kuwait, Bahrain, Russian Federation, United Arab Emirates and the Niger. Representatives from the World Bank, the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) also addressed the Committee. The Committee will meet again at 3 p.m. this afternoon to continue its general debate on the advancement of women and the implementation of the outcome of the Fourth World Conference on Women.
4. What are the causes of extreme poverty, and what policies have been most effective for improving the lives of the poorest of the poor?
More than 10% of the world’s population lives in extreme poverty — but do you know why? We look at 9 of the top drivers of global poverty.

Picture it: you need to feed your family, travel to and from work, and get your child school supplies. But you only have $1.90 in your pocket. It seems like an impossible scenario. But for approximately 800 million people in the world, it’s their reality. 11% of the world’s population is living in extreme poverty, which is defined as surviving on only $1.90 a day. As dire as those figures are, there is some good news: In 1990, 35% of the world (1.8 billion people) was living in extreme poverty — so we’ve made some huge strides. While many argue that we will never be able to truly get rid of poverty, extreme poverty can be eradicated. Unfortunately, there is no “magic bullet” solution, but if we want to get rid of extreme poverty, we must first understand its causes. Here, we look at some of the top causes of poverty around the world.
a) Inadequate access to clean water and nutritious food
Currently, more than 2 billion people don’t have access to clean water at home, while over 800 million suffer from hunger. You might think that poverty causes hunger and prevents people from accessing clean water (and you would be right!), but hunger and water insecurity are also big reasons why people struggle to escape extreme poverty. If a person doesn’t get enough food, they simply don’t have the strength and energy needed to work, while lack of access to food and clean water can also lead to preventable illnesses like diarrhea. And when people must travel far distances to clinics or spend what little money remains on medicine, it drains already vulnerable populations of money and assets, and can knock a family from poverty into extreme poverty. Even if clean water sources are available, they’re often located far from poor, rural communities. This means that women and girls collectively spend some 200 million hours every day walking long distances to fetch water. That’s precious time that could be used working, or getting an education to help secure a job later in life.
b) Little or no access to livelihoods or jobs
This might seem a bit like a “no brainer.” Without a job or a way to make money, people will face poverty. But it’s easy to assume that if someone wants a job, they could have one. That just isn’t true, particularly in developing and rural parts of the world. Dwindling access to productive land (often due to conflict, overpopulation, or climate change), and overexploitation of resources like fish or minerals is putting increasing pressure on many traditional livelihoods. In the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) for example, most of the population lives in rural communities where natural resources have been plundered over centuries of colonialism — while conflict over land disputes has forced people from the land they relied upon for food and money. Now, more than half of the country lives in extreme poverty. While inconsistent work and low paying jobs can land a family in poverty, absolutely no work means that a family can’t get by without assistance.
c) Conflict
Conflict can cause poverty in several ways. Large scale, protracted violence that we see in places like Syria can grind society to a halt, destroy infrastructure, and cause people to flee, forcing families to sell or leave behind all their assets. In Syria, around 70% of the entire population now lives below the poverty line — this in a country where extreme poverty was once very rare. Women often bear the brunt of conflict: during periods of violence, female-headed households become very common. And because women often have difficulty getting well-paying work and are typically excluded from community decision-making, their families are particularly vulnerable. But even small bouts of violence can have huge impacts on communities that are already struggling. For example, if farmers are worried about their crops being stolen, they won’t invest in planting. Women are particularly vulnerable in these kinds of conflicts, too, as they often become the targets of sexual violence while fetching water or working alone in the fields.
d) Inequality
There are many different types of inequality in the world, from economic to social inequalities like gender, caste systems, or tribal affiliations. But no matter the inequality, it generally means the same thing: unequal or no access to the resources needed to keep or lift a family out of poverty. Sometimes inequalities are obvious, but in other situations, it can be subtle — for example, the voices of certain people or groups might not be heard in community meetings, meaning they don’t get a say in important decisions. Regardless, these inequalities mean that the people affected don’t have the tools they desperately need to get ahead, and for already vulnerable families, this can mean the difference between being poor or living in extreme poverty.
e) Poor education
Not every person without an education is living in extreme poverty. But most of the extremely poor don’t have an education. And why is that? There’s a lot of barriers stopping children from going to school. Many families can’t afford to send their children to school and need them to work. More still don’t see a benefit in educating girls. Education is often referred to as the great equalizer, and that’s because education can open the door to jobs and other resources and skills that a family needs to not just survive, but thrive. UNESCO estimates that 171 million people could be lifted out of extreme poverty if they left school with basic reading skills. And, with even more education, world poverty could be cut in half.
The Census Bureau released its annual income, poverty, and health insurance report yesterday, revealing that four years into the economic recovery, there has been some progress in the poverty rate as it fell from 15 percent in 2012 to 14.5 percent in 2013, but there was no statistically significant improvement in the number of Americans living in poverty. Furthermore, low- and middle-income workers have seen little to no income growth over the past decade, as the gains from economic growth have gone largely to the wealthiest Americans. With flat incomes and inequality stuck at historically high levels, one might assume that chronic economic insecurity and an off-kilter economy are the new normal and that nothing can be done to fix it. But there is nothing normal or inevitable about elevated poverty levels and stagnant incomes. They are the direct result of policy choices that put wealth and income into the hands of a few at the expense of growing a strong middle class.
Government invests in jobs and policies to increase workers’ wages and families’ economic security, children and families see improved outcomes in both the short and long term.
Here are five steps government can take to cut poverty, boost economic security, and expand the middle class.
a) Create jobs
The best pathway out of poverty is a well-paying job. To get back to prerecession employment levels, we must create 5.6 million new jobs. At the current pace, however, we will not get there until July 2018. To kick-start job growth, the federal government should invest in job-creation strategies such as rebuilding our infrastructure; developing renewable energy sources; renovating abandoned housing; and making other common-sense investments that create jobs, revitalize neighborhoods, and boost our national economy. We should also build on proven models of subsidized employment to help the long-term unemployed and other disadvantaged workers re-enter the labor force. In addition, the extension of federal unemployment insurance would have created 200,000 new jobs in 2014, according to the Congressional Budget Office. Indeed, every $1 in benefits that flows to jobless workers yields more than $1.50 in economic activity. Unfortunately, Congress failed to extend federal unemployment insurance at the end of 2013, leaving 1.3 million Americans and their families without this vital economic lifeline.
b) Raise the minimum wage
In the late 1960s, a full-time worker earning the minimum wage could lift a family of three out of poverty. Had the minimum wage back then been indexed to inflation, it would be $10.86 per hour today, compared to the current federal minimum wage of $7.25 per hour. Raising the minimum wage to $10.10 per hour and indexing it to inflation—as President Barack Obama and several members of Congress have called for—would lift more than 4 million Americans out of poverty. Nearly one in five children would see their parent get a raise. Recent action taken by cities and states—such as Seattle, Washington; California; Connecticut; and New Jersey—shows that boosting the minimum wage reduces poverty and increases wages.
c) Increase the Earned Income Tax Credit for childless workers
One of our nation’s most effective anti-poverty tools, the Earned Income Tax Credit, or EITC, helped more than 6.5 million Americans—including 3.3 million children—avoid poverty in 2012. It’s also an investment that pays long-term dividends. Children who receive the EITC are more likely to graduate high school and to have higher earnings in adulthood. Yet childless workers largely miss out on the benefit, as the maximum EITC for these workers is less than one-tenth that awarded to workers with two children. President Obama and policymakers across the political spectrum have called for boosting the EITC in order to right this wrong. Importantly, this policy change should be combined with a hike in the minimum wage; one is not a substitute for the other.
d) Support pay equity
With female full-time workers earning just 78 cents for every $1 earned by men, action must be taken to ensure equal pay for equal work. Closing the gender wage gap would cut poverty in half for working women and their families and add nearly half a trillion dollars to the nation’s gross domestic product. Passing the Paycheck Fairness Act to hold employers accountable for discriminatory salary practices would be a key first step.
e) Provide paid leave and paid sick days
The United States is the only developed country in the world without paid family and medical leave and paid sick days, making it very difficult for millions of American families to balance work and family without having to sacrifice needed income. Paid leave is an important anti-poverty policy, as having a child is one of the leading causes of economic hardship. Additionally, nearly 4 in 10 private-sector workers—and 7 in 10 low-wage workers—do not have a single paid sick day, putting them in the impossible position of having to forgo needed income, or even their job, in order to care for a sick child. The Family and Medical Insurance Leave Act, or FAMILY Act, would provide paid leave protection to workers who need to take time off due to their own illness, the illness of a family member, or the birth of a child. And the Healthy Families Act would enable workers to earn up to seven job-protected sick days per year.
5.Rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations? Do large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity?
The relationship between population growth and economic development has been a recurrent theme in economic analysis since at least 1798 when Thomas Malthus famously argued that population growth would depress living standards in the long run. The theory was simple: given that there is a fixed quantity of land, population growth will eventually reduce the amount of resources that each individual can consume, ultimately resulting in disease, starvation, and war. The way to avoid such unfortunate outcomes was ‘moral restraint’ (i.e. refraining from having too many children). He didn’t foresee the technological advances that would raise agricultural productivity and reduce the toll of infectious diseases—advances that have enabled the world’s population to grow from 1 billion in 1798 to 7.4 billion today. Nevertheless, his essential insight that population growth constitutes a potential threat to economic development remained influential and informed international development policy agendas, especially in the 1950s and 1960s—a period marked by unprecedentedly rapid rates of population growth in many developing countries. “given that there is a fixed quantity of land, population growth will eventually reduce the amount of resources that each individual can consume, ultimately resulting in disease, starvation, and war.”
Quantity vs Quality: How family sizes affect investment
At that time, the general view of economists was that high birth rates and rapid population growth in poor countries would divert scarce capital away from savings and investment, thereby placing a drag on economic development. They hypothesized that larger families have fewer aggregate resources and fewer resources per child. Larger families therefore spread their resources more thinly to support more children. This leaves less for saving and investing in growth-enhancing activities. It also reduces spending on enhancing the economic potential of each child (e.g. through education and health expenditures). In the aggregate, these household level consequences of high birth rates were believed to exert a significant negative effect on per capita income growth. “high birth rates and rapid population growth in poor countries would divert scarce capital away from savings and investment, thereby placing a drag on economic development”. This view underpinned the major rise in international funding for family planning in the 1960s and 1970s, with the aim of reducing birth rates and hence rates of population growth. Forget moral restraint, was Malthus wrong?
In the 1970s numerous empirical studies, utilising the growing volume of comparable international data, failed to detect a robust relationship between national population growth rates and per capita income growth. Writing in Science in 1980, Julian Simon summarised this research, emphasising that “[e]mpirical studies find no statistical correlation between countries’ population growth and their per capita economic growth”. Indeed, he maintained long run effects were positive. This more sanguine view influenced the policy position of the US government at the World Population Conference in Mexico City in 1984—namely that “population growth is, by itself, a neutral phenomenon [with respect to economic growth]” ([vii]). This view arguably contributed to a major fall in international funding for family planning programs, beginning in the 1990s. But the story doesn’t end there. In the 1990s researchers made two discoveries that questioned the neutrality of population growth with respect to economic development. First, analyses of the remarkable economic trajectory of East Asian countries in the late 20th century suggested a sizeable fraction of their impressive economic growth was attributable to high levels of savings and investment facilitated by earlier fertility declines. Second, new research suggested that there was in fact a negative association between population growth and economic performance. A population’s age composition matters for economic growth. When fertility rates decline over a sustained period of time the proportion of the working age population (i.e. over 15) grows relative to the economically dependent youth population. This change in age composition creates a window of opportunity during which a country can potentially raise its level of savings and investment—a phenomenon now known as the ‘demographic dividend’. This finding prompted a subsequent reconsideration of the potential importance of reducing fertility in pursuit of growth. “change in age composition creates a window of opportunity during which a country can potentially raise its level of savings and investment—a phenomenon now known as the ‘demographic dividend’.” The second key discovery in the 1990s was the emergence of a negative correlation between population growth and economic growth in further analyses of international cross-sectional data ([xi], [xii]). In 2001, Birdsall and Sinding summarised the new position, stating that “in contrast to assessments over the last several decades, rapid population growth is found to have exercised a quantitatively important negative impact on the pace of aggregate economic growth in developing countries”. A recent meta-analysis of this research concluded that a negative relationship emerged in the post-1980 data, and that its strength has increased with time.
6. Why is there so much unemployment and underemployment in the developing world, especially in the cities, and why do people continue to migrate to the cities from rural areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job are very slim?
In the world, three out of four people living in poverty and suffering from hunger live in rural areas. This data, released by FAO, emphasizes the extent of rural poverty, caused by factors such as lack of employment and opportunities, limited access to services and infrastructure, and conflicts over natural resources and land. Added to these circumstances are the adverse effects of climate change, which aggravate alarming phenomena such as the exhaustion of natural resources, deforestation, soil erosion, a decline in crop yields, or the loss of agrobiodiversity. This set of unfavorable conditions causes significant migratory flows to cities, especially of young people seeking new income and employment opportunities. Rural-urban migration in Central America has contributed to the population growth of cities, and the region is today the second in the world to register the highest and fastest urbanization rates, with an average growth rate of 3.8 during the last two decades. Likewise, according to World Bank forecasts, by 2050 the region will have doubled its urban population, mainly due to rural migrants who come to the cities in search of economic opportunities and access to basic services.
Challenges
The migratory movement towards urban areas implies a transformation process that causes a decrease of income generation and employment in agriculture. This leads to less labor participation in the primary sector, which can cause a reduction in agricultural production and threaten food security in some territories. Thus, for example, the countryside may lack a young and dynamic workforce, also registering an ageing population, which can compromise a sufficient and varied food production. In rural areas of Mexico, for example, the migration of young people, and the consequent decrease in the fertility rate, has caused a variation among the population groups: while in 2005 there were 21 adults over 60 years for every 100 children, predictions indicate that by 2051 there will be 167 older adults for every 100 children. Likewise, the increase in urban poverty responds to the abundant migratory flows to cities: migrants may not find work in urban areas (although the search for employment opportunities was the reason for mobilizing),and this generates a vicious circle of scarcity and needs. The high percentages of informal work in the region also indicate a lack of social protection, which aggravates the situations of poverty and precariousness of internal migrants. Another factor that highlights the difficult living conditions of rural migrants in cities is that, due to limited economic resources, this population often lives in informal settlements, which are home to around 29% of the urban population in Central America. These settlements are usually located in areas that are vulnerable to natural disasters, such as floods, landslides and earthquakes. This shows how rural migration, also fostered by the effects of climate change, needs special attention to avoid a reproduction of existing vulnerabilities.
Furthermore, while conflicts over natural resources can provoke rural migration, migrants find new forms of violence in cities. In the Northern Triangle of Central America, violence is a mainly urban phenomenon, aggravated by causes such as poverty, segregation, inequality and lack of opportunities. Farmers in poverty conditions and unemployed people can be new victims of criminal groups in cities. This situation can cause new migratory flows of people who migrated to the cities and, as they do not find an adequate situation, they decide to migrate abroad. Hence, rural-urban migration has crucial implications not only for rural, but also urban development and sustainability. For example, current challenges such as urban overpopulation or the loss of traditional crops and agrobiodiversity depend directly on rural migratory flows. To resolve these issues, it is necessary to draw attention to their roots: the countryside and migration.
Opportunities
The FAO report also highlights the positive aspects of rural migration, which can reduce pressure on local labor markets and natural resources or improve wages in the agricultural sector. Remittances from international migrants can also facilitate investments in productive economic activities, generate employment, and increase private consumption. Along the same lines, rural migration (historically with a greater male presence), the decline in the fertility rate and a growing number of households headed by women have produced a feminization of agriculture, especially in Mexico and largely in Central America . This phenomenon has encouraged the economic and social empowerment of rural women and in some cases the reduction of gender stereotypes that limited their functions. For example, women have started to take over agricultural tasks previously only performed by men, such as preparing the field and growing food for trade.
However, on the other hand, these results can also be detrimental for women, since they lead to an overload of work in the field or in local commerce and at home.
How can governments and other national and international organizations encourage rural migration that benefits all actors?
The FAO Framework for Migration proposes four main actions to effectively address the phenomenon of rural migration. These recommendations are:
a. Minimise the causes of migration and offer alternatives in rural areas, creating decent employment opportunities and mitigating the impacts of climate change;
b. Facilitate rural mobility, developing agricultural migration plans and information campaigns for migrants and promoting opportunities for cooperation between rural and urban areas.
c. Accentuate the benefits of migration, promoting the investment of remittances and highlighting the usefulness of migration as an adaptation strategy to climate change;
d. Promote the well-being of migrants, providing support for their incorporation into host communities.
With the deterioration of climatic and environmental conditions, the mechanization of work in the field and the high rates of rural poverty, rural migration to cities will continue to be an important issue to address, because of its determining effects on the achievement of food security and rural and urban sustainability. The COVID-19 pandemic, and the consequent isolation measures and mobility restrictions, have further heightened the urgency to address the issue of urban overpopulation and informal settlements in Central America, where there is a greater risk of contracting the illness, in addition to having limited access to basic services. Encouraging the design of comprehensive policies that consider the well-being of migrants in their migratory processes to cities, the effects of climate change and urban overpopulation is a necessary strategy to promote sustainable rural and urban development.
7. Wealthier societies are also healthier ones because they have more resources for improving nutrition and health care. But does better health also help spur successful development?
The contribution of health to wealth and societal well-being. Health has a value in and of itself. It matters to individuals and societies across the European Region. This value can be expressed in monetary terms, based on the decisions that individuals make in their everyday lives, such as whether to undertake a dangerous job for a higher salary. Methods such as this do have drawbacks, but nonetheless, the evidence demonstrates conclusively that people attach huge importance to the notion and enjoyment of health, regardless of cultural or economic differences. Health also has a significant impact on economic productivity. Development economists have long recognized the importance of the right mix of physical and human capital. However, when thinking about the latter they have traditionally focused on education and not health. This changed with a publication by the Commission on Macroeconomics and Health, which found that, in developing countries, poor health dragged down economic growth. Later work showed how the same was true in high- and middle-income countries. People in poor health are less likely to work and, when in work, are less productive. They are less likely to invest in their own education or to save for retirement, and so to support the wider economy. The economic position of countries today owes much to the extent to which they were able to achieve better health historically. The current economic and labour market context, social security arrangements, retirement age and the interactions between them will need to be taken into account in addressing the economic benefits of better health in the future. The evidence is clear; a healthy population including healthy older people can contribute very substantially to the economy. Health status also clearly influences health expenditure. If no-one was ill there would be no need for health services. Analyses undertaken in several countries suggest that policies which promote healthy lifestyles and early use of preventive care may be able to reduce future demands on the health system. As already noted, ageing populations need not necessarily place greater demands on health systems. This does not, however, offset all the pressures to increase overall spending, nor does it reflect the likely increases in demand for social care.
8. What is the impact of poor public health on the prospects for development, and what is needed to address these problems?
Drawing on a review of the literature, site visits, statements at the four open meetings, review of other case studies (Miller and Moos, 1981; Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, 1982b), and the recent evaluation of progress by the U.S. Public Health Service—The 1990 Health Objectives for the Nation (Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1986), the committee has identified some appreciable barriers to effective problem-solving in public health. These barriers include:
– lack of consensus on the content of the public health mission;
– inadequate capacity to carry out the essential public health functions of assessment, policy development, and assurance of services;
– disjointed decision-making without necessary data and knowledge;
– inequities in the distribution of services and the benefits of public health;
– limits on effective leadership, including poor interaction among the technical and political aspects of decisions, rapid turnover of leaders, and inadequate relationships with the medical profession;
Unless these barriers are overcome, the committee believes that it will be impossible to develop and sustain the capacity to meet current and future challenges to public health while maintaining the progress already achieved. Deaths and disabilities that could be prevented with current knowledge and technologies will occur.
References
1. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK218227/
2. https://rosanjose.iom.int/site/en/blog/migration-rural-areas-cities-challenges-and-opportunities
3. https://reliefweb.int/report/world/top-9-causes-global-poverty
4. https://www.un.org/press/en/1996/19961028.gash3367.html

NAME: AGBOEZE NKECHINYERE JULIET
REG. NUMBER: 2018/SD/37259
DEPARTMENT: EDUCATION/ECONOMICS
COURSE: ECO 361

QUESTION 6
Post-development theory: This theory questions the idea of national economic development altogether. According to post-development scholars, the goal of improving living standards leans on arbitrary claims as to the desirability and possibility of that goal. Development is being seen as a loss of a country’s own culture, people’s perception of themselves and modes of life. The institutes which voice the concern over underdevelopment are very Western-oriented, and postdevelopment calls for a broader cultural involvement in development thinking.
Economic nationalism: This reflects policies that focus on domestic control of capital formation, the economy, and labor, using tariffs or other barriers. It restricts the movement of capital, goods, and labor.
Linear Stages of Growth Mode: This model states that economic growth can only stem from industrialization. The model also agrees that local institutions and social attitudes can restrict growth if these factors influence people’s savings rates and investments.
Structural-Change Theory: The structural-change theory focuses on changing the overall economic structure of a nation, which aims to shift society from being a primarily agrarian one to a primarily industrial one.
QUESTION 7
Different countries face different binding constraints on achieving faster rates of growth and economic development. A key mission for economic development specialists is to help determine the nature of the constraints for each country. Ricardo Hausmann, Dani Rodrik, and Andrés Velasco (HRV) propose a growth diagnostics decision tree framework for zeroing in on a country’s most binding constraints on economic growth. They explain that targeting the most binding constraint has important advantages over other approaches to policy selection. The following are the most binding constraints according to them.
i. Bad international finance
ii. Poor geography
iii. Bad infrastructure
iv. Low human capital
v. Poor intermediation
vi. Coordination externalities
vii. Low domestic saving

QUESTION 8
Throughout history, the role of women in the society has ensured the stability, progress and long term development of nations. Globally, women constitute 43 percent of the world’s agricultural labor force, rising to 70% in some countries. It is widely accepted that agriculture can be the engine of growth and poverty reduction in developing nations.
The role of women as a caretaker if improved, can result to improvement in food and nutrition security, generate income and an improved general livelihood and overall well-being of a nation comes.
Improvement in the role of women as an educators has contributed immensely to the development of the society from pre- literate to literate society. Basic education is key to nations ability to develop and achieve sustainability targets. Studies has shown that education improves agricultural productivity, enhance the status of girls and women, reduce population growth rates, enhance environmental protection and widely raises the standard of living.
When women are empowered and can claim their Rights and access to resources, leadership, opportunities and choices, economies grow, food security is enhanced and prospects are improved for current and future generations

QUESTION 9
1. Conflict :Conflict can cause poverty in several ways. Large scale, protracted violence that we see in places like Syria can grind society to a halt, destroy infrastructure, and cause people to flee, forcing families to sell or leave behind all their assets. In Syria, around 70% of the entire population now lives below the poverty line — this in a country where extreme poverty was once very rare. Women often bear the brunt of conflict: during periods of violence, female-headed households become very common. And because women often have difficulty getting well-paying work and are typically excluded from community decision-making, their families are particularly vulnerable.
2.Little or no access to livelihoods or jobs: This might seem a bit like a “no brainer.” Without a job or a way to make money, people will face poverty. But it’s easy to assume that if someone wants a job, they could have one. That just isn’t true, particularly in developing and rural parts of the world. Dwindling access to productive land (often due to conflict, overpopulation, or climate change), and overexploitation of resources like fish or minerals is putting increasing pressure on many traditional livelihoods.
3. Inequality: There are many different types of inequality in the world, from economic to social inequalities like gender, caste systems, or tribal affiliations. But no matter the inequality, it generally means the same thing: unequal or no access to the resources needed to keep or lift a family out of poverty.Sometimes inequalities are obvious, but in other situations, it can be subtle — for example, the voices of certain people or groups might not be heard in community meetings, meaning they don’t get a say in important decisions. Regardless, these inequalities mean that the people affected don’t have the tools they desperately need to get ahead, and for already vulnerable families, this can mean the difference between being poor or living in extreme poverty.
4. Poor education :Not every person without an education is living in extreme poverty. But most of the extremely poor don’t have an education. And why is that? There’s a lot of barriers stopping children from going to school. Many families can’t afford to send their children to school and need them to work. More still don’t see a benefit in educating girls. Education is often referred to as the great equalizer, and that’s because education can open the door to jobs and other resources and skills that a family needs to not just survive, but thrive. UNESCO estimates that 171 million people could be lifted out of extreme poverty if they left school with basic reading skills.
Measures taken to curb poverty:
– Improve management of water and other natural resources. Most of the rural poor depend on agriculture or other natural resources for their livelihood. Consequently, it is necessary that they have more equitable access to those resources so they are better able to manage their resources.
– Encourage countries to engage in trade as a path out of poverty. Trade is the key to growth and prosperity.
– Enhance and improve access to jobs and income and develop entrepreneurial talent.
– Provide all people with access to basic social services including education, health care, adequate food, sanitation, shelter and clean water.
– Develop social protection systems to support those who cannot support themselves.
– Empower people living in poverty by involving them in the development and implementation of plans and programs to reduce and eradicate poverty.

QUESTION 10
Rapid population growth is not a cause for concern because:
a. The problem is not population growth but other issues.
b. Population growth is a false issue deliberately created by dominant rich-country agencies and institutions to keep developing countries in their dependent condition.
c. For many developing countries and regions, population growth is in fact desirable.
Some other positions support the need to curtail population growth because of the negative economic, social, and environmental consequences. According to the latest empirical research, the potential negative consequences of population growth for economic development can be divided into seven categories- It impacts on:
Education: It is generally agreed that large family size and low incomes restrict the opportunities of parents to educate all their children. At the national level, rapid population growth causes educational expenditures to be spread more thinly, lowering quality for the sake of quantity.
Economic growth: Evidence shows that although it is not the culprit behind economic stagnation, rapid population growth lowers per capita income growth in most developing countries, especially those that are already poor.
Health: High fertility harms the health of mothers and children. It increases the health risks of pregnancy, amongst other harms
Poverty and inequality: The negative consequences of rapid population growth fall most heavily on the poor because they are the ones who are made landless, suffer first from cuts in government health and education programs, and bear the consequences of environmental damage..
Food: Feeding the world’s population is made more difficult by rapid population growth—a large fraction of developing country food requirements are the result of population increases.

QUESTION 11
The following are reasons why there is so much unemployment and underemployment in the cities of developing countries.
– Misguided urban-planning policies
– Rural-urban migration
– Unbridled growth of the Population
People migrate to the city even when there is no job because of the following reasons:
– The concentration of social services in urban areas has led to overurbanization: Workers considering a move will assess a variety of things, including housing, stores, transportation, schools, hospitals, and other facilities. These things, when combined, motivate people to migrate even when there are no jobs.
– Economic and social policy that affect rural and urban real incomes: Recognize that every economic and social policy that affects rural and urban real incomes will influence the migration process directly or indirectly. As a result, the pattern of sectoral and geographic economic activity, income distribution, and even population growth will change.

QUESTION 12
?
Beyond the econometrics, it is interesting to compare the simple association between the health indicators and per capita income. This is expected to yield more insight into the nexus between health and economic growth. The simple association using scatter diagram between the health indicators, per capita income and doctors per capita reveals that:
• There is a positive relationship between per capita income and life expectancy. At low income levels there is a sharp improvement in health as incomes increase. There is a strong positive relationship between the life expectancy and per capita income up to a threshold per capita income level of about $375. The relationship becomes weak as incomes rise beyond that point, although it remains positive.
• There is an inverse relationship between income and crude death rate. At a low level of development, crude death rate declines faster, with only a slight improvement in per capita income levels. Nevertheless, progress in reducing death rate slows after a threshold level of about $375.
• There is a positive relationship between per capita health expenditure and life expectancy. At low expenditure levels there is a sharp improvement in health as expenditure increases.
• The number of doctors is positively related to life expectancy. At low doctors per capita levels there is a sharp improvement in health as the number of doctors’ per capita increase.
• There is an inverse relationship between doctors’ per capita and infant mortality rate as well as and doctors per capita and the death rate. The decline in the mortality rate is noted to be faster as the number of doctor increases.

QUESTION 13
There is need for the government in these countries to step up to face this problem of poor public health. The government can do this by:
• Increasing efficiency of care to reduce total consumption of care, e.g. by limiting “irrational drug prescribing,” strengthening the referral system, or improving the quality of providers
• Reducing the direct cost of care at the point of service, e.g. through reducing/abolishing user fees for the poor or expanding health insurance to the poor
• Expanding access to care by using the private sector or public-private partnerships.
• Reducing inequalities in determinants of health status or health care utilization, such as reducing distance (through providing services closer to the poor), subsidizing travel costs, targeted health promotion, conditional cash transfers.

NAME: IKECHUKWU IFECHUKWU VICTOR
REG NO: 2018/248667
DEPT: ECONOMICS
COURSE: ECO 361
ASSIGNMENT.

Online Discussion Quiz 3–More Vital Questions to Budding Economists
Clearly and convincingly answer the following Questions as the Special Adviser to Mr. President on Development and Employment Generation.

6. Which are the most influential theories of development, and are they compatible? Is underdevelopment an internally (domestically) or externally (internationally) induced phenomenon?
Structuralism and linear stages of growth model are the most influential theories of development. They are compatible because they are both concerned with restructuring the economy in such a way that lead to industrialization and economic development.
Underdevelopment is an internally induced phenomenon because most factors which lead to the issue of underdevelopment in developing countries are locally or internally generated. Some of these factors may be as a result of the following:
1. Government policies
2. The People’s Culture
3. Climate and Geography of the country
4. Resource Availability etc.

7. What constraints most hold back accelerated growth, depending on local conditions?
The constraints that most hold back accelerated growth depending on local conditions are:
Low levels of education
Poor health facilities
Lack of necessary infrastructure
Political instability
Weak institutional framework

8. How can improvements in the role and status of women have an especially beneficial impact on development prospects?
Throughout history, the central role of women in society has ensured the stability, progress and long-term development of nations. The contributions of women to a society is undeniable. Women have been known to be key in providing basic education which is integral to a nation’s ability to develop and achieve sustainability targets. Research has shown that education can enhance the status of girls and women, reduce population growth rates, enhance environmental protection, and widely raise the standard of living.
So improving the role and status of women through empowerment is essential to boosting the development prospects of a developing country. When women are living safe, fulfilled and productive lives, they can reach their full potential, contributing their skills to the society and in this way, put the economy on a rapid growth and development path.

9. What are the causes of extreme poverty, and what policies have been most effective for improving the lives of the poorest of the poor?
The causes of extreme poverty includes:
Low productivity in Agriculture
Resource underutilization
Low rate of economic development
High inflation rate
Unemployment
Corrupt government
Poor access to education etc.
The most effective policies for improving the lives of those in extreme poverty are:
Improving access to education
Improving access to public health facilities
Improving access to credit
Provision of social amenities
Job creation

10. Rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations? Do large families make Economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity?
Answer: No, it is rather a non advisable venture to have large families in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity, this is because there will be:
1. Competition in feeding resulting to raising malnourished children etc
2. Low standard of living,
3. Low per capita income
4. Problem of unemployment
5. Poor health
6. Over dependence on Agriculture and an abuse on the Environment
7. An evenly increase of insecurity and crime rate.

11. Why is there so much unemployment and underemployment in the developing world, especially in the cities, and why do people continue to migrate to the cities from rural areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job is very slim?
Answer: The level of unemployment and Underemployment in the developing World are as a result of the following
1. Increase rate of population/Overpopulation
2. Immigration
3. Corruption and embezzlement
4. Poor policy implementation
5. Lack of infrastructures
6. Poor health status
Although the chances of getting conventional employment is slim in the cities, people keep migrating because of the following reasons:
1. Crop failures in the village
2. Aside employment purposes, to at least learn skills and education
3. Natural disasters like flood, draught, famine, fire outbreak. etc
4. Lack of better opportunities in the village.
5. As a result of war and disagreement.
6. For security purposes.

12. Wealthier societies are also healthier ones because they have more resources for improving nutrition and health care. But does better health also help spur successful development?
Answer:
Yes, just like I earlier said Health is Wealth and a healthy nation is a wealthy nation. Better health help spur successful development because of the following reasons:
1. Good health leads to high level of production or increased output.
2. Good health encourages savings and investment as money which are supposed to be used to foot birthday bills are channelled into more productive uses.
3. Good health Spurs Mental stability, as there will be less mentally depressed souls out there.
4. Increased per capita income.
5. Improve standard of living
6. Increase number of healthy workforce.
7. Improvement of other sectors of the Economy due to the fact that government expenditure could be channel to other productive uses.

13. What is the impact of poor public health on the prospects for development, and what is needed to address these problems?.
Answer:
Poor public health has a negative impact on the development of a nation in the following ways:
1. Low productivity
2. Decrease savings
3. Decrease investment
4. Decrease standard of living
5. High cost of living
6. Low per capita income
To address this problem, the following are needed:
1. Investment in health sector
2. Provision of good health facilities
3. Proper sanitation
4. Health insurance scheme’s
5. Provision of health practices like exercises etc

NAME: ASADU FRANCISCA SOMTOCHUKWU
REG NO: 2018/241230
DEPT: EDUCATION AND ECONOMICS
COURSE: ECO 361

6. Which are the most influential theories of development, and are they compatible? Is under development an internally (domestically) or externally (internationally) induced phenomenon?
ANSWER
Development theory is a collection of theories about how desirable change in society is best achieved. Such theories draw on a variety of social science disciplines and approaches. In this article, multiple theories are discussed, as are recent developments with regard to these theories. Depending on which theory that is being looked at, there are different explanations to the process of development and their inequalities.

1. Modernization theory is used to analyze the processes in which modernization in societies take place. The theory looks at which aspects of countries are beneficial and which constitute obstacles for economic development. The idea is that development assistance targeted at those particular aspects can lead to modernization of ‘traditional’ or ‘backward’ societies. Scientists from various research disciplines have contributed to modernization theory.

2. Structuralism is a development theory which focuses on structural aspects which impede the economic growth of developing countries. The unit of analysis is the transformation of a country’s economy from, mainly, a subsistence agriculture to a modern, urbanized manufacturing and service economy. Policy prescriptions resulting from structuralist thinking include major government intervention in the economy to fuel the industrial sector, known as import substitution industrialization (ISI). This structural transformation of the developing country is pursued in order to create an economy which in the end enjoys self-sustaining growth. This can only be reached by ending the reliance of the underdeveloped country on exports of primary goods (agricultural and mining products), and pursuing inward-oriented development by shielding the domestic economy from that of the developed economies.

3. Dependency theory is essentially a follow up to structuralist thinking, and shares many of its core ideas. Whereas structuralists did not consider that development would be possible at all unless a strategy of delinking and rigorous ISI was pursued, dependency thinking could allow development with external links with the developed parts of the globe. However, this kind of development is considered to be “dependent development i.e., it does not have an internal domestic dynamic in the developing country and thus remains highly vulnerable to the economic vagaries of the world market.

Underdevelopment is viewed as an externally-induced process which is perpetuated by a small but powerful domestic elite who form an alliance with the international capitalist system. The “development of underdevelopment” is therefore systemic and path-dependent.

7. What constraints most hold back accelerated growth, depending on local conditions?
ANSWER

SOCIAL OBSTACLES
Following are the important social obstacles in the way of economic development :

1. Joint Family System :-
In many countries like India and Pakistan this system is still available. All the members of the family live together. Few of them work hard while the others do nothing, except quarreling with one another. So due to this reason national product reduces.

2. Literacy :-
The literacy rate is very low in the under developed countries. It reduces the rate of economic growth.

8. How can improvements in the role and status of women have an especially beneficial impact on development prospects?
ANSWER

9. What are the causes of extreme poverty, and what policies have been most effective for improving the lives of the poorest of the poor?
ANSWER

Following are the main causes of poverty:-

1. Increase rate of rising population:

In the last 45 years, the population has increased at the whopping rate of 2.2% per annum. An average of approx. 17 million people are added every year to the population which raises the demand for consumption goods considerably.

2. Less productivity in agriculture:

In agriculture, the productivity level is very low due to subdivided and fragmented holdings, lack of capital, use of traditional methods of cultivation, illiteracy etc. The very reason for poverty in the country is this factor only.

3. Less utilization of resources:

Underemployment and veiled unemployment of human resources and less utilization of resources have resulted in low production in the agricultural sector. This brought a downfall in their standard of living.

4. A short rate of economic development:

In India, the rate of economic development is very low what is required for a good level. Therefore, there persists a gap between the level of availability and requirements of goods and services. The net result is poverty.

5. Increasing price rise:

Poor is becoming poorer because of continuous and steep price rise. It has benefited a few people in the society and the persons in lower income group find it difficult to get their minimum needs.

6. Unemployment:

One of the main causes of poverty is the continuous expanding army of unemployed in our country. The job seeker is increasing in number at a higher rate than the expansion in employment opportunities.

7. Shortage of capital and able entrepreneurship:

The much-required capital and sustainable entrepreneurship play a very important role in accelerating the growth. But these are in short supply making it difficult to increase production significantly.

8. Social factors:

Our country’s social set up is very much backward with the rest of the world and not at all beneficial for faster development. The caste system, inheritance law, rigid traditions and customs are putting hindrances in the way of faster development and have aggravated the problem of poverty.

9. Political factors:

We all know that the East India Company started lopsided development in India and had reduced our economy to a colonial state. They exploited the natural resources to suit their interests and weaken the industrial base of Indian economy. Hence, the planning was of immense failure to handle the problems of poverty and unemployment.

10. Rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations? Do large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity?

11. Why is there so much unemployment and underemployment in the developing world, especially in the cities, and why do people continue to migrate to the cities from rural areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job are very slim?

12 Wealthier societies are also healthier ones because they have more resources for improving nutrition and health care. But does better health also help spur successful development?

13. What is the impact of poor public health on the prospects for development, and what is needed to address these problems?

Eco. 361—23-8-2021 (Online Discussion Quiz 3–More Vital Questions to Budding Economists)
NAME: OKELEKE CHINEMEMMA VICTORY
REG NO: 2018/247843
DEPT: ECONOMICS
LEVEL: 300L
EMAIL: okelekevictory@yahoo.com

QUESTIONS:
Following from the previous questions, clearly and convincingly answer the following Questions as the Special Adviser to Mr. President on Development and Employment Generation.
6. Which are the most influential theories of development, and are they compatible? Is underdevelopment an internally (domestically) or externally (internationally) induced phenomenon?
7. What constraints most hold back accelerated growth, depending on local conditions?
8. How can improvements in the role and status of women have an especially beneficial impact on development prospects?
9. What are the causes of extreme poverty, and what policies have been most effective for improving the lives of the poorest of the poor?
10. Rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations? Do large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity?
11. Why is there so much unemployment and underemployment in the developing world, especially in the cities, and why do people continue to migrate to the cities from rural areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job are very slim?
12 Wealthier societies are also healthier ones because they have more resources for improving nutrition and health care. But does better health also help spur successful development?
13. What is the impact of poor public health on the prospects for development, and what is needed to address these problems?
ANSWERS
6.The most influential theories of development are Modernization theory, development theory and a feminist theory. Modernization theory suggests that traditional society with develop as they adopt more modern practice proponent of Modernization theory claims that modern state are wealthier and More powerful and their citizens are freer to enjoy a higher standard of living.
•Dependency theory is a popular theory within the society Sciences to explain Economics Development of states. It is the framework to sufficiently analyze and explain both Development and underdevelopment within the international system. It does so by allowing scholars and practice to look to external matters, such as politics, Economics and culture, and attempt to come to an understanding of how these issues influences development policies the feminist theory of development and to understand the nature of gender inequality, and examines women’ social notes, experiences and interests . While generally providing a critique of social relations ,much if feminist theory also focuses on analysing gender inequality and the promotion of woman’s interest. Feminist theory analyses gender stratification through the intersection of gender, race and class.
The three most influential theories of development mentioned above are not compatible because dependency theory focuses on Economics underemployment of former colonies or non industrialized countries, Modernization theory focuses on how traditional and underdeveloped society transfer to modern societies and feminist theory observes gender in it’s relation to power both at the level face -to- face interaction and reflexblity within social structure at Large focuses include sexual orientation, race, Economics status and nationality.
Underdevelopment is seen as international induced phenomenon because it is perpetuated by a small by powerful internal elite who collaborate with the international capitalist system a good instance is “Europe underdeveloped Africa”.
7.The limiting factors that most hold back accelerated growth, depending local conditions are:
Human resources
Physical capital
Natural resources and
technology.
Human resources: the skills, Educational and training of the labour Force have a direct effect on the growth of economy. A shortage of skills labour can be a limiting factor to Economics growth.
Physical capital: lack of improvement in physical capital such as roads, machinery, and factories will increase the cost and decrease the efficiency of economic output .
Natural resources: the quantity and availability of natural resources after the rate of Economics growths. Unavailability of natural resources within a locality is a limiting factor to Economics growth.
Technology: Generally, technology have a high impact on Economics growth but when not improved, limits economic growth
8.There is no tool for Development more effective than empowering of women (Kofi Annan)

It is known that the empowerment of both genders particularly women and girls, and has become a significant topic of discourses with regards to Development and Economics.

With regards to improvement in the role and status of women in impacting Development is empowerment of women. Empowerment of women in the society addresses social discrimination that excludes certain individuals and groups from the decision – making processes, social discrimination may be based on disability, race, ethnicity, religion, or gender .it may also refer to the manner the marginalized individual or group is treated or related with in a particular context. Empowering women therefore, aims essentially at achieving gender equality in political, Economics, social and cultural rights

, It plays a significant role in overcoming women’s sub ordination, subjugation, deprivation, oppression and other forms of societal in humanity to female which impede development. The agitation for women empowerment in society is basically because of unequal access to resources in various spheres of life which embedded prospect for development in the society.
9.the various causes of extreme poverty are as follows.
Little or access to livelihood or jobs
Poor education
Conflict
Inequality
Lack of infrastructure
Little or no access to livelihoods or jobs
This might seem a bit like a “no brainer.” Without a job or a way to make money, people will face poverty. But it’s easy to assume that if someone wants a job, they could have one. That just isn’t true, particularly in developing and rural parts of the world. Dwindling access to productive land (often due to conflict, overpopulation, or climate change), and overexploitation of resources like fish or minerals is putting increasing pressure on many traditional livelihoods. In the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) for example, most of the population lives in rural communities where natural resources have been plundered over centuries of colonialism — while conflict over land disputes has forced people from the land they relied upon for food and money. Now, more than half of the country lives in extreme poverty. While inconsistent work and low paying jobs can land a family in poverty, absolutely no work means that a family can’t get by without assistance.

Poor education
Not every person without an education is living in extreme poverty. But most of the extremely poor don’t have an education. And why is that? There’s a lot of barriers stopping children from going to school. Many families can’t afford to send their children to school and need them to work. More still don’t see a benefit in educating girls. Education is often referred to as the great equalizer, and that’s because education can open the door to jobs and other resources and skills that a family needs to not just survive, but thrive. UNESCO estimates that 171 million people could be lifted out of extreme poverty if they left school with basic reading skills. And, with even more education, world poverty could be cut in half.
Conflict
Conflict can cause poverty in several ways. Large scale, protracted violence that we see in places like Syria can grind society to a halt, destroy infrastructure, and cause people to flee, forcing families to sell or leave behind all their assets. In Syria, around 70% of the entire population now lives below the poverty line — this in a country where extreme poverty was once very rare. Women often bear the brunt of conflict: during periods of violence, female-headed households become very common. And because women often have difficulty getting well-paying work and are typically excluded from community decision-making, their families are particularly vulnerable.

But even small bouts of violence can have huge impacts on communities that are already struggling. For example, if farmers are worried about their crops being stolen, they won’t invest in planting. Women are particularly vulnerable in these kinds of conflicts, too, as they often become the targets of sexual violence while fetching water or working alone in the fields
Inequality
There are many different types of inequality in the world, from economic to social inequalities like gender, caste systems, or tribal affiliations. But no matter the inequality, it generally means the same thing: unequal or no access to the resources needed to keep or lift a family out of poverty.
Sometimes inequalities are obvious, but in other situations, it can be subtle — for example, the voices of certain people or groups might not be heard in community meetings, meaning they don’t get a say in important decisions. Regardless, these inequalities mean that the people affected don’t have the tools they desperately need to get ahead, and for already vulnerable families, this can mean the difference between being poor or living in extreme poverty.
Lack of infrastructure
Imagine that you have to go to work, or to the store, but there are no roads to get you there. Or heavy rains have flooded your route and made it impassable. What would you do then? A lack of infrastructure — from roads, bridges, and wells to cables for light, cell phones, and internet — can isolate communities living in rural areas. Living “off the grid” means the inability to go to school, work, or market to buy and sell goods. Traveling farther distances to access basic services not only takes time, it costs money, keeping families in poverty. Isolation limits opportunity, and without opportunity, many find it difficult, if not impossible, to escape extreme poverty. The policies that is effective in improving the life of the poorest of the poor.
The concerns that concentrated efforts to lower poverty would slow the rate of growth paralleled the arguments that countries with lower inequality would experience slower growth. In particular, if there were redistribution of income or assets from rich to poor, even through progressive taxation, the concern was expressed that savings would fall.However, while the middle class generally has the highest savings rates, the marginal savings rates of the poor, when viewed from a holistic perspective, are not small. In addition to financial savings, the poor tend to spend additional income on improved nutrition, education for their children, improvements in housing conditions, and other expenditures that, especially at poverty levels, represent investments rather than consumption. There are at least five reasons why policies focused toward reducing poverty levels need not lead to a slower rate of growth.
10.Rapid population threatens the economy growth of a country in the following ways
Reduction of availability resources
Migrations pressures
Unemployment ECT
Large families does not make Economics sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial securities.
11.imigartion pressure: people migrate to town or cities from the village and the employment opportunities in cities will be able to absorb or accommodate them and this lead unemployment.
Increase in crimes
The major reason for unemployment and underemployment especially in cities or urban area is chiefly attributed to the high rate of rural area movement. Rural dweller tend to move to the cities searching for green pastures. Rural dweller deeply believe no matter how slime their chances of getting employment in city is, it is still better than the rural area and for this reason the number of immigrants labour supply in the town tend to be very high by village standard employment and opportunity are numerous in the town and people depends upon permanent employment and regular minimal wage to meet the higher cost of living. The question is are all town dwellers employable? No! People migrate or move from village to town in such a way that not all of the people get employed when they get to town. This is because employment opportunities may at each time fall short of the numbers of people seeking fir employment. This therefore, to migration pressure on the town by the rural dweller as there is a constant continues the rendering for the village people to move over to the town. This tendency increases the cost of living and the level of unemployment while reducing wages in the town.
12. Better health spur wealthier nation because for every wealthy nation there is an underlying healthy individuals. The incentive effect is borne of the theoretical literature, and individuals who are healthier and have a greater life expectancy will have the incentive to invest in education as the time horizon over which returns can be earned is extended. Education is the driver of economic growth, and thus health plays an indirect role.
13. There is a negative impact of poor public health on the prospects of Development as unavailable of inadequate health facilities. The government should provide adequate health facilities and trained medical personnel in other to reduce the effects of poor public health on Development.

Eco. 361—23-8-2021 (Online Discussion Quiz 3–More Vital Questions to Budding Economists)
NAME: OKELEKE CHINEMEMMA VICTORY
REG NO: 2018/247843
DEPT: ECONOMICS
LEVEL: 300L
EMAIL: okelekevictory@yahoo.com

QUESTIONS:
Following from the previous questions, clearly and convincingly answer the following Questions as the Special Adviser to Mr. President on Development and Employment Generation.
6. Which are the most influential theories of development, and are they compatible? Is underdevelopment an internally (domestically) or externally (internationally) induced phenomenon?
7. What constraints most hold back accelerated growth, depending on local conditions?
8. How can improvements in the role and status of women have an especially beneficial impact on development prospects?
9. What are the causes of extreme poverty, and what policies have been most effective for improving the lives of the poorest of the poor?
10. Rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations? Do large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity?
11. Why is there so much unemployment and underemployment in the developing world, especially in the cities, and why do people continue to migrate to the cities from rural areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job are very slim?
12 Wealthier societies are also healthier ones because they have more resources for improving nutrition and health care. But does better health also help spur successful development?
13. What is the impact of poor public health on the prospects for development, and what is needed to address these problems?
ANSWERS
6.The most influential theories of development are Modernization theory, development theory and a feminist theory. Modernization theory suggests that traditional society with develop as they adopt more modern practice proponent of Modernization theory claims that modern state are wealthier and More powerful and their citizens are freer to enjoy a higher standard of living.
•Dependency theory is a popular theory within the society Sciences to explain Economics Development of states. It is the framework to sufficiently analyze and explain both Development and underdevelopment within the international system. It does so by allowing scholars and practice to look to external matters, such as politics, Economics and culture, and attempt to come to an understanding of how these issues influences development policies the feminist theory of development and to understand the nature of gender inequality, and examines women’ social notes, experiences and interests . While generally providing a critique of social relations ,much if feminist theory also focuses on analysing gender inequality and the promotion of woman’s interest. Feminist theory analyses gender stratification through the intersection of gender, race and class.
The three most influential theories of development mentioned above are not compatible because dependency theory focuses on Economics underemployment of former colonies or non industrialized countries, Modernization theory focuses on how traditional and underdeveloped society transfer to modern societies and feminist theory observes gender in it’s relation to power both at the level face -to- face interaction and reflexblity within social structure at Large focuses include sexual orientation, race, Economics status and nationality.
Underdevelopment is seen as international induced phenomenon because it is perpetuated by a small by powerful internal elite who collaborate with the international capitalist system a good instance is “Europe underdeveloped Africa”.
7.The limiting factors that most hold back accelerated growth, depending local conditions are:
Human resources
Physical capital
Natural resources and
technology.
Human resources: the skills, Educational and training of the labour Force have a direct effect on the growth of economy. A shortage of skills labour can be a limiting factor to Economics growth.
Physical capital: lack of improvement in physical capital such as roads, machinery, and factories will increase the cost and decrease the efficiency of economic output .
Natural resources: the quantity and availability of natural resources after the rate of Economics growths. Unavailability of natural resources within a locality is a limiting factor to Economics growth.
Technology: Generally, technology have a high impact on Economics growth but when not improved, limits economic growth
8.There is no tool for Development more effective than empowering of women (Kofi Annan)

It is known that the empowerment of both genders particularly women and girls, and has become a significant topic of discourses with regards to Development and Economics.

With regards to improvement in the role and status of women in impacting Development is empowerment of women. Empowerment of women in the society addresses social discrimination that excludes certain individuals and groups from the decision – making processes, social discrimination may be based on disability, race, ethnicity, religion, or gender .it may also refer to the manner the marginalized individual or group is treated or related with in a particular context. Empowering women therefore, aims essentially at achieving gender equality in political, Economics, social and cultural rights

, It plays a significant role in overcoming women’s sub ordination, subjugation, deprivation, oppression and other forms of societal in humanity to female which impede development. The agitation for women empowerment in society is basically because of unequal access to resources in various spheres of life which embedded prospect for development in the society.
9.the various causes of extreme poverty are as follows.
Little or access to livelihood or jobs
Poor education
Conflict
Inequality
Lack of infrastructure
Little or no access to livelihoods or jobs
This might seem a bit like a “no brainer.” Without a job or a way to make money, people will face poverty. But it’s easy to assume that if someone wants a job, they could have one. That just isn’t true, particularly in developing and rural parts of the world. Dwindling access to productive land (often due to conflict, overpopulation, or climate change), and overexploitation of resources like fish or minerals is putting increasing pressure on many traditional livelihoods. In the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) for example, most of the population lives in rural communities where natural resources have been plundered over centuries of colonialism — while conflict over land disputes has forced people from the land they relied upon for food and money. Now, more than half of the country lives in extreme poverty. While inconsistent work and low paying jobs can land a family in poverty, absolutely no work means that a family can’t get by without assistance.

Poor education
Not every person without an education is living in extreme poverty. But most of the extremely poor don’t have an education. And why is that? There’s a lot of barriers stopping children from going to school. Many families can’t afford to send their children to school and need them to work. More still don’t see a benefit in educating girls. Education is often referred to as the great equalizer, and that’s because education can open the door to jobs and other resources and skills that a family needs to not just survive, but thrive. UNESCO estimates that 171 million people could be lifted out of extreme poverty if they left school with basic reading skills. And, with even more education, world poverty could be cut in half.
Conflict
Conflict can cause poverty in several ways. Large scale, protracted violence that we see in places like Syria can grind society to a halt, destroy infrastructure, and cause people to flee, forcing families to sell or leave behind all their assets. In Syria, around 70% of the entire population now lives below the poverty line — this in a country where extreme poverty was once very rare. Women often bear the brunt of conflict: during periods of violence, female-headed households become very common. And because women often have difficulty getting well-paying work and are typically excluded from community decision-making, their families are particularly vulnerable.

But even small bouts of violence can have huge impacts on communities that are already struggling. For example, if farmers are worried about their crops being stolen, they won’t invest in planting. Women are particularly vulnerable in these kinds of conflicts, too, as they often become the targets of sexual violence while fetching water or working alone in the fields
Inequality
There are many different types of inequality in the world, from economic to social inequalities like gender, caste systems, or tribal affiliations. But no matter the inequality, it generally means the same thing: unequal or no access to the resources needed to keep or lift a family out of poverty.
Sometimes inequalities are obvious, but in other situations, it can be subtle — for example, the voices of certain people or groups might not be heard in community meetings, meaning they don’t get a say in important decisions. Regardless, these inequalities mean that the people affected don’t have the tools they desperately need to get ahead, and for already vulnerable families, this can mean the difference between being poor or living in extreme poverty.
Lack of infrastructure
Imagine that you have to go to work, or to the store, but there are no roads to get you there. Or heavy rains have flooded your route and made it impassable. What would you do then? A lack of infrastructure — from roads, bridges, and wells to cables for light, cell phones, and internet — can isolate communities living in rural areas. Living “off the grid” means the inability to go to school, work, or market to buy and sell goods. Traveling farther distances to access basic services not only takes time, it costs money, keeping families in poverty. Isolation limits opportunity, and without opportunity, many find it difficult, if not impossible, to escape extreme poverty. The policies that is effective in improving the life of the poorest of the poor.
The concerns that concentrated efforts to lower poverty would slow the rate of growth paralleled the arguments that countries with lower inequality would experience slower growth. In particular, if there were redistribution of income or assets from rich to poor, even through progressive taxation, the concern was expressed that savings would fall.However, while the middle class generally has the highest savings rates, the marginal savings rates of the poor, when viewed from a holistic perspective, are not small. In addition to financial savings, the poor tend to spend additional income on improved nutrition, education for their children, improvements in housing conditions, and other expenditures that, especially at poverty levels, represent investments rather than consumption. There are at least five reasons why policies focused toward reducing poverty levels need not lead to a slower rate of growth.
10.Rapid population threatens the economy growth of a country in the following ways
Reduction of availability resources
Migrations pressures
Unemployment ECT
Large families does not make Economics sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial securities.
11.imigartion pressure: people migrate to town or cities from the village and the employment opportunities in cities will be able to absorb or accommodate them and this lead unemployment.
Increase in crimes
The major reason for unemployment and underemployment especially in cities or urban area is chiefly attributed to the high rate of rural area movement. Rural dweller tend to move to the cities searching for green pastures. Rural dweller deeply believe no matter how slime their chances of getting employment in city is, it is still better than the rural area and for this reason the number of immigrants labour supply in the town tend to be very high by village standard employment and opportunity are numerous in the town and people depends upon permanent employment and regular minimal wage to meet the higher cost of living. The question is are all town dwellers employable? No! People migrate or move from village to town in such a way that not all of the people get employed when they get to town. This is because employment opportunities may at each time fall short of the numbers of people seeking fir employment. This therefore, to migration pressure on the town by the rural dweller as there is a constant continues the rendering for the village people to move over to the town. This tendency increases the cost of living and the level of unemployment while reducing wages in the town.
12. Better health spur wealthier nation because for every wealthy nation there is an underlying healthy individuals. The incentive effect is borne of the theoretical literature, and individuals who are healthier and have a greater life expectancy will have the incentive to invest in education as the time horizon over which returns can be earned is extended. Education is the driver of economic growth, and thus health plays an indirect role.
13. There is a negative impact of poor public health on the prospects of Development as unavailable of inadequate health facilities. The government should provide adequate health facilities and trained medical personnel in other to reduce the effects of poor public health on Development.

6: Modernization theory and structural theories are some of the most influential theories of development.both theories looks at which aspect of the countries are beneficial and which constitutes obstacles for economic development.they also aim at reconstructing the economy in such away that industrialization and stable economic development is achieved, which makes these two theories compatible.
Underdevelopment is internally generated because most factors that causes underdevelopment in developing nations are generated locally which are:
1 corruption
2 unfavorable business condition
3 dependece on one source of national revenue
4 unemployment
5 poor government policy implementations

7: Nigeria economic potentials is constrained by many structural issues which includes:
1 inadequate infrastructure
2 tariff and non tariff barrier to trade
3 challenges to investment
4 lack of confidence in currency valuation
5 limited foreign exchange capacity.

8: In societies or nation where their improvement in the role and status of women,there you will find economic growth and development.the reason is because when the status and the role s of women who are active labour force are refused,it leeds to reduced house hold expenditure, reduced labour force, government taxation, aggregate savings,high level of dependency and porverty. Just like the populer saying that when you empower a man you empower an individual but when you empower a woman you empower a nation.
9: causes of porverty in developing countries are as follows:
1 corruption
2 undeveloped economic infrastructure
3 lack of education
4 poor medical care
5 unfair distribution of material resources
Some of the policies that has been adopted to eradicate porverty are:
1 operation feed the nation
2 green revolution
3 better life for rural women
4 family economic advancement program.

10: Rapid population growth is a big threat to the growth and development of an economy because when the population in a nation is more than the availabile resources,it becomes a problem for such an economy to grow.it will result to many factors that hinder economic growth and development such as underemployment, unemployment and porverty.
Secondly having a large family size in a n economy of widespread porverty and financial insecurities,is not encouraged because it leads to population growth and will result to unemployment, underemployment which as well result to all kinds of crime in the society.
11: There is much unemployment and underemployment I developing nations because these two variables are one of the characteristics of developing nations. Secondly, it is because the number of people looking for jobs is higher than the number of jobs available.
The rural area tends to migrate to the city in search of better jobs and better their lives.the rural area migrate to the city even when the chance of getting job is slim because they believe that there are better opportunities in the city than in the rural areas.
12: Health impact economic growth in many ways for example,it increases in the sense that the labour force in an economy who engage in production of goods and services only dose that in good health and this results in economic growth and development but when the labour force is faced with illnesses it reduces productivity and then hinder economic development. it is also know that health is wealth and a healthy nation is as well a wealthy nation.

13: just like I mentioned above, a healthy nation is a wealthy nation and any economy where the labour force are healthy,such economy developse and progress.
In most Developing nations,one of the set back to development is the health condition of that nation.when a nation has more sick people who are not adequately taken care of due to poor public health facilities,it hinders economic growth and development.
To solve this problem,the government should found the public health sector in order to provide health care facilities to ensure that the health of the citizens are adequately taken care of which will in turn forster economic growth and development.

6. Which are the most influential theories of development, and are they compatible? Is underdevelopment an internally (domestically) or externally (internationally) induced phenomenon?
Mercantilism Theory
Mercantilism seem to be one of the earliest forms of development economics that created practices to promote the success of a nation. It was a dominant economic theory practiced in Europe from the 16th to the 18th centuries. The theory promoted augmenting state power by lowering exposure to rival national powers.
mercantilism promoted government regulation by prohibiting colonies from transacting with other nations. In general, it sought a trade surplus (exports greater than imports), did not allow the use of foreign ships for trade, and it optimized the use of domestic resources.

Economic Nationalism
Economic nationalism depicts policies that focus on domestic control of capital formation, the economy, and labor, using tariffs or other barriers. It restricts the movement of capital, goods, and labor.

Economic nationalists do not generally agree with the benefits of globalization and unlimited free trade. They focus on a policy that is isolationist so that the industries within a nation are able to grow without the threat of competition from established companies in other countries.

Linear Stages of Growth Model
The linear stages of growth model was used to revitalize the European economy after World War II.

This model states that economic growth can only stem from industrialization. The model also agrees that local institutions and social attitudes can restrict growth if these factors influence people’s savings rates and investment.

Structural-Change Theory
The structural-change theory aims on changing the overall economic structure of a nation, which aims to shift society from being a primarily agrarian one to a primarily industrial one.

Generally, development is both internally and externally induced phenomenon. When we say that it is internally induce, we mean that countries with numerous resources are not able to make proper utilization of its resources for the improvement of living standard of the citizens. It could be as a result of political or socio-economic mismanagement. For example, a country experiencing political crisis is likely to experience economic instability. Illiteracy can also be an internal factor that inhibits economic development. Hence, they lack the requisite to implement and executive policies. Also, underdevelopment can be externally induced. This is common with colonialism and when already developed nations prey on the developing nations majorly through international trade policies.
internationally) induced phenomenon?

7. What constraints most hold back accelerated growth, depending on local conditions?
Political Instability
Frequent change of government and political crisis can be a serious threat to a country’s development. When a particular government leaves power without completing a project, the new government that assume power will pick in a new project and abandon the previously unfinished project.
Lack of Competent Economist
If an economist is not competent in dispensing his duty, it seems to have a negative impact on the nation. For example, a new central bank governor who happens to be an economist with development policy acumen will be unable to accelerate growth.
8. How can improvements in the role and status of women have an especially beneficial impact on development prospects?

Enhancing women ‘ s participation in development is essential not only for achieving social justice but also for reducing poverty. Worldwide experience shows clearly that supporting a stronger role for women contributes to economic growth, it improves child survival and overall family health, and it reduces fertility, thus helping to slow population growth rates. In short, investing in women is central to sustainable development. And yet, despite these known returns, women still face many barriers in contributing to and benefiting from development. The barriers begin with comparatively low investment in female education and health, they continue with restricted access to services and assets, and they are made worse by legal and regulatory constraints on women ‘ s opportunities.
9. Rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations? Do large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity?
Poverty rarely has a single cause. A range of factors including rising living costs, low pay, low education, conflicts, government limited capacity, lack of work, and inadequate social security benefits together mean some people do not have enough resources.
Poverty reduction, poverty relief, or poverty alleviation, is a set of measures, both economic and humanitarian, that are intended to permanently lift people out of poverty. They include:
Creating jobs
Educating women
Gender equality
Microfinancing
Access to healthcare
Cancelling national debts
Transparency in government spending
10. Rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations? Do large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity?
Rapid population growth do threaten the economic progress of developing nations because when we say that a country is developing, it means that such country is characterized by low standard of living such as poor healthcare facilities, low investment and income, etc.
In an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity, it will be detrimental for families to have high number of children without first aiming to improve their standard of living (development). This will bring about economic depression which will lead to crisis and increase in crime rate among other.
11. Why is there so much unemployment and underemployment in the developing world, especially in the cities, and why do people continue to migrate to the cities from rural areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job are very slim?
The major cause of unemployment and underemployment in underdeveloped countries include but not limited to, high level of illiteracy, low government investment on infrastructure, political Instability, ineptitude to work, increase in population. They also includes and are not limited to lack of physical capital stock, lack of infrastructure, inequitable distribution of land, the use of capital intensive techniques.
People in rural areas have this misconception that urban living standard is better than rural standard of living at any economic situation.
12. Wealthier societies are also healthier ones because they have more resources for improving nutrition and health care. But does better health also help spur successful development?
A country with improved medical health is more likely to develop in all sphere than a country where very diseases and poor medical facilities are common. It is therefore, important that a country pays attention to improve their health as a prerequisite to attain a vast growth and development.
13. What is the impact of poor public health on the prospects for development, and what is needed to address these problems?
Poor public health contributes negatively or retard development in any geographical location. It means an increase in number of disabled persons and dependency ratio of the entire population. To address this problem, government should take the following measures:
Provide good medical facilities and its accessibility
Educate the citizens on the importance of good health
Train more medical personnels

REG NO: 2018/249273
DEPARTMENT: ECONOMICS
COURSE CODE: ECO 361(DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS I)

Modernization theory is used to analyze the processes in which modernization in societies take place. The theory looks at which aspects of countries are beneficial and which constitute obstacles for economic development. The idea is that development assistance targeted at those particular aspects can lead to modernization of ‘traditional’ or ‘backward’ societies. Scientists from various research disciplines have contributed to modernization theory. Sociological and anthropological modernization theory The earliest principles of modernization theory can be derived from the idea of progress, which stated that people can develop and change their society themselves. Marquis de Condorcet was involved in the origins of this theory. This theory also states that technological advancements and economic changes can lead to changes in moral and cultural values. The French sociologist Émile Durkheim stressed the interdependence of institutions in a society and the way in which they interact with cultural and social unity. His work The Division of Labor in Society was very influential. It described how social order is maintained in society and ways in which primitive societies can make the transition to more advanced societies. Other scientists who have contributed to the development of modernization theory are: David Apter, who did research on the political system and history of democracy; Seymour Martin Lipset, who argued that economic development leads to social changes which tend to lead to democracy; David McClelland, who approached modernization from the psychological side with his motivations theory; and Talcott Parsons who used his pattern variables to compare backwardness to modernity. Linear stages of growth model The linear stages of growth model is an economic model which is heavily inspired by the Marshall Plan which was used to revitalize Europe’s economy after World War II. It assumes that economic growth can only be achieved by industrialization. Growth can be restricted by local institutions and social attitudes, especially if these aspects influence the savings rate and investments. The constraints impeding economic growth are thus considered by this model to be internal to society. According to the linear stages of growth model, a correctly designed massive injection of capital coupled with intervention by the public sector would ultimately lead to industrialization and economic development of a developing nation. The Rostow’s stages of growth model is the most well-known example of the linear stages of growth model. Walt W. Rostow identified five stages through which developing countries had to pass to reach an advanced economy status: Traditional society, Preconditions for take-off, Take-off, Drive to maturity, Age of high mass consumption. He argued that economic development could be led by certain strong sectors; this is in contrast to for instance Marxism which states that sectors should develop equally. According to Rostow’s model, a country needed to follow some rules of development to reach the take-off: The investment rate of a country needs to be increased to at least 10% of its GDP, One or two manufacturing sectors with a high rate of growth need to be established, An institutional, political and social framework has to exist or be created in order to promote the expansion of those sectors. The Rostow model has serious flaws, of which the most serious… Underdevelopment is viewed as an externally-induced process which is perpetuated by a small but powerful domestic elite who form an alliance with the international capitalist system. The “development of underdevelopment” is therefore systemic and path-dependent .
2). What constraints mosthold back acceralated growth, depending on local conditions.
1. Joint Family System :-
In many countries like India and Pakistan this system is still available. All the members of the family live together. Few of them work hard while the others do nothing, except quarreling with one another. So due to this reason national product reduces.

2. Literacy :-
The literacy rate is very low in the under developed countries. It reduces the rate of economic growth. In Indian and Pakistan…

3. Population
Population is a considerable constraint on economic growth, either, and most commonly, because there is too a high rate of population growth for the country’s current resources, or because the population is growing too slowly or declining as a result of war, famine, or disease. Many economists see population growth as the single biggest issue facing developing countries.
4. Debts
In the case of public sector funding, spare public funds are often used to repay previous debts, so there are fewer available funds for capital investment by government. This is often called the problem of debt overhang. The recent sovereign debt crisis has highlighted the problems faced by countries with large public debts, and how such debts limit the ability of government to inject spending into a developing economy.
5.Lack of savings
A general lack of savings is often seen as the key reason why financial capital is in short supply. High interest rates to encourage saving will, of course, deter investment .

3). How can improvements in the role and status of women have an especially beneficial impact on development prospects.
Throughout history, the central role of women in society has ensured the stability, progress and long-term development of nations. Globally, women comprise 43 percent of the world’s agricultural labor force – rising to 70 percent in some countries.
The Role of Women as Caretakers
Women are the primary caretakers of children and elders in every country of the world. International studies demonstrate that when the economy and political organization of a society change, women take the lead in helping the family adjust to new realities and challenges. They are likely to be the prime initiator of outside assistance, and play an important role in facilitating (or hindering) changes in family life.
The Role of Women as Educators
The contribution of women to a society’s transition from pre-literate to literate likewise is undeniable. Basic education is key to a nation’s ability to develop and achieve sustainability targets. Research has shown that education can improve agricultural productivity, enhance the status of girls and women, reduce population growth rates, enhance environmental protection, and widely raise the standard of living.

It is the mother in the family who most often urges children of both genders to attend – and stay – in school. The role of women is at the front end of the chain of improvements leading to the family’s, the community’s long-term capacity.
The Role of Women in the Workforce
Today, the median female share of the global workforce is 45.4 percent. Women’s formal and informal labor can transform a community from a relatively autonomous society to a participant in the national economy. Despite significant obstacles, women’s small businesses in rural developing communities not only can be an extended family’s lifeline, but can form a networked economic foundation for future generations. The role of women in the urban and rural workforce has expanded exponentially in recent decades.
The Role of Women as Global Volunteers
Global Volunteers’ community development work in host countries worldwide strengthens women’s and children’s capacity and supports their sustained health and development. Under the direction of local leaders, our volunteers help ensure academic accessibility, foster parental involvement, offer psycho-social support, provide nutrition and health education, fund girls’ scholarships, construct schools with girls’ bathrooms, tutor literacy, and numeracy, and so much more. Contact us using the form below to learn how you can contribute to this critical agenda.

4). What are the causes of extreme poverty, and what policies have been most effective for improving the lives of the poorest of the poor.
1. Inadequate access to clean water and nutritious food

Currently, more than 2 billion people don’t have access to clean water at home, while over 800 million suffer from hunger. You might think that poverty causes hunger and prevents people from accessing clean water (and you would be right!), but hunger and water insecurity are also big reasons why people struggle to escape extreme poverty.

If a person doesn’t get enough food, they simply don’t have the strength and energy needed to work, while lack of access to food and clean water can also lead to preventable illnesses like diarrhea. And when people must travel far distances to clinics or spend what little money remains on medicine, it drains already vulnerable populations of money and assets, and can knock a family from poverty into extreme poverty.

Even if clean water sources are available, they’re often located far from poor, rural communities. This means that women and girls collectively spend some 200 million hours every day walking long distances to fetch water. That’s precious time that could be used working, or getting an education to help secure a job later in life.

2. Little or no access to livelihoods or jobs

This might seem a bit like a “no brainer.” Without a job or a way to make money, people will face poverty. But it’s easy to assume that if someone wants a job, they could have one. That just isn’t true, particularly in developing and rural parts of the world. Dwindling access to productive land (often due to conflict, overpopulation, or climate change), and overexploitation of resources like fish or minerals is putting increasing pressure on many traditional livelihoods. In the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) for example, most of the population lives in rural communities where natural resources have been plundered over centuries of colonialism — while conflict over land disputes has forced people from the land they relied upon for food and money. Now, more than half of the country lives in extreme poverty. While inconsistent work and low paying jobs can land a family in poverty, absolutely no work means that a family can’t get by without assistance.

3. Conflict

Conflict can cause poverty in several ways. Large scale, protracted violence that we see in places like Syria can grind society to a halt, destroy infrastructure, and cause people to flee, forcing families to sell or leave behind all their assets. In Syria, around 70% of the entire population now lives below the poverty line — this in a country where extreme poverty was once very rare. Women often bear the brunt of conflict: during periods of violence, female-headed households become very common. And because women often have difficulty getting well-paying work and are typically excluded from community decision-making, their families are particularly vulnerable.

But even small bouts of violence can have huge impacts on communities that are already struggling. For example, if farmers are worried about their crops being stolen, they won’t invest in planting. Women are particularly vulnerable in these kinds of conflicts, too, as they often become the targets of sexual violence while fetching water or working alone in the fields.

4. Inequality

There are many different types of inequality in the world, from economic to social inequalities like gender, caste systems, or tribal affiliations. But no matter the inequality, it generally means the same thing: unequal or no access to the resources needed to keep or lift a family out of poverty.

Sometimes inequalities are obvious, but in other situations, it can be subtle — for example, the voices of certain people or groups might not be heard in community meetings, meaning they don’t get a say in important decisions. Regardless, these inequalities mean that the people affected don’t have the tools they desperately need to get ahead, and for already vulnerable families, this can mean the difference between being poor or living in extreme poverty.

5. Poor education

Not every person without an education is living in extreme poverty. But most of the extremely poor don’t have an education. And why is that? There’s a lot of barriers stopping children from going to school. Many families can’t afford to send their children to school and need them to work. More still don’t see a benefit in educating girls. Education is often referred to as the great equalizer, and that’s because education can open the door to jobs and other resources and skills that a family needs to not just survive, but thrive. UNESCO estimates that 171 million people could be lifted out of extreme poverty if they left school with basic reading skills. And, with even more education, world poverty could be cut in half.

6. Climate change

You might be stunned to learn that the World Bank estimates that climate change has the power to push more than 100 million people into poverty over the next ten years. As it is, climate events like drought, flooding, and severe storms disproportionately impact communities already living in poverty. Why? Because many of the world’s poorest populations rely on farming or hunting and gathering to eat and earn a living. They often have only just enough food and assets to last through the next season, and not enough reserves to fall back on in the event of a poor harvest. So when natural disasters (including the widespread droughts caused by El Niño) leave millions of people without food, it pushes them further into poverty, and can make recovery even more difficult.

7. Lack of infrastructure

Imagine that you have to go to work, or to the store, but there are no roads to get you there. Or heavy rains have flooded your route and made it impassable. What would you do then? A lack of infrastructure — from roads, bridges, and wells to cables for light, cell phones, and internet — can isolate communities living in rural areas. Living “off the grid” means the inability to go to school, work, or market to buy and sell goods. Traveling farther distances to access basic services not only takes time, it costs money, keeping families in poverty. Isolation limits opportunity, and without opportunity, many find it difficult, if not impossible, to escape extreme poverty.

8. Limited capacity of the government

Many people living in the United States are familiar with social welfare programs that people can access if they need healthcare or food assistance. But not every government can provide this type of help to its citizens — and without that safety net, there’s nothing to stop vulnerable families from backsliding further into extreme poverty if something goes wrong. Ineffective governments also contribute to several of the other causes of extreme poverty mentioned above, as they are unable to provide necessary infrastructure or ensure the safety and security of their citizens in the event of conflict.

9. Lack of reserves

People living in poverty don’t have the means to weather the storms of life. So when there is a drought, or conflict, or illness, there is little money saved or assets on hand to help. In Ethiopia for example, repeated cycles of drought have caused harvest after harvest to fail, causing a widespread hunger crisis. To cope, families will pull their children from school, and sell off everything they own to eat. That can help a family make it through one bad season, but not another. For communities constantly facing climate extremes or prolonged conflict, the repeated shocks can send a family reeling into extreme poverty and prevent them from ever recovering.
In summary, to reduce poverty, government policies could include: Means-tested welfare benefits to the poorest in society; for example, unemployment benefit, food stamps, income support and housing benefit. Minimum wages. Regulation of labour markets, for example, statutory minimum wages.

5). Rapid population growth threatening the economic process of developing nations. Do large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity.
There are some benefits of overpopulation, more people means more labor force, it can product more things, and more people will buy the products, However, the growth of population should be similar to the food supply, so overpopulation will cause lack of food, and as the rate of growth of population exceeds the rate . As the economy grows, so do opportunities for employment and income growth. Stronger labor markets and higher income levels tend to help those families living in poverty move above the poverty threshold. … That is, lower poverty rates coincide with decreases in unemployment or increases in income,
1 Increased Human Resources. One obvious advantage that some people believe can be found in a large population is a greater number of human resources. …
2 Higher Demand in Industry. …
3 Increased Military Might. …
4 Cheaper and More Readily Available Products.
6). Why is there so much unemployment and Underdevelopment in the developing world, especially in the cities, and why do people continue to migrate to the cities from rural areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job are very slim.

The reason is most of the higher skilled workers are already in the modern sector and searching for wage jobs in poor economies. As modern-sector productivity grows, it is the less skilled workers that switch sectors, and their unemployment rate rises faster as a result. Health Poor health and healthcare is as much a cause of underdevelopment as underdevelopment is a cause of poor health. Lack of sanitation and clean water supply, poor education, inadequate nutrition, and insufficient income to buy even the most basic drugs mean that the risk of disease is greatly augmented. According to them, the basic cause of unemployment in developing countries is the deficiency of the availability of essential consumer goods, often called wage goods. … Given the real wage rate, a particular number of people can be employed in the economy, depending upon the supply of wage-goods in the economy. Unemployment rates are in fact substantially lower in poor countries than in rich countries. In the poorest quartile of the world income distribution, unemployment averages around 2.5%, while in the richest quartile, around 8% of the labour force is unemployed on average. The unemployment rate is the proportion of unemployed persons in the labor force. Unemployment adversely affects the disposable income of families, erodes purchasing power, diminishes employee morale, and reduces an economy’s output.
Certain immigrant groups, such as those with low levels of education, experience extremely high rates of unemployment, especially during recessions. The unemployment rates of immigrants can be higher in countries that have more rigid labor market regulations and institutions.
To the most common and most important causes of unemployment may include lack of education and skills of the long-term unemployed persons. Another reason is the reluctance of people to migrate in search of work or to commute to another city.

7). Wealthier societies are also healthier ones because they have more resources for improving nutrition and health care. But does better health also help spur successful development.
The positive impact that health has on growth and poverty reduction occurs through a number of mechanisms, such as through a reduction of production losses due to fewer worker illnesses, the increased productivity of adults as a result of better nutrition, lower absenteeism rates and improved learning among school. Overall Economy Rapidly rising health care spending is considered to lower the rate of growth in GDP and overall employment, while raising inflation. However, some economists view increases in health care spending as a neutral, if not positive, impact on the economy. Research shows that economic vitality improves health. The results suggest that population health really does contribute meaningfully to a community’s economic strength, and that good community health helps protects against economic shocks, like the Great Recession. health, and education; thus, health becomes an objec- tive of development. At the same time, a basic needs strategy is most effective when viewed as a means to increase individual and national productivity, Throughout history, improved health has been one of the main benefits of development. This benefit results partly from an increase in income and partly from scientific progress in the fight against disease and disability. This second factor is increasingly important compared to simple economic growth. Health plays an important role in human capital formation for the following reasons (i) Only a healthy person can perform to his full potential. (ii) A healthy person can do the work in a more effective manner. (iii) A healthy person can contribute to the growth and development of the economy by doing productive work.

8). What is the impact of poor public health on the prospects for development, and what is needed to address these problems.
Poverty and low-income status are associated with various adverse health outcomes, including shorter life expectancy, higher infant mortality rates, and higher death rates for the 14 leading causes of death. Individual- and community-level mechanisms mediate these effects.
At a societal level, poor population health is associated with lower savings rates, lower rates of return on capital, and lower levels of domestic and foreign investment; all of these factors can and do contribute to reductions in economic growth.
Poverty and low-income status are associated with various adverse health outcomes, including shorter life expectancy, higher infant mortality rates, and higher death rates for the 14 leading causes of death. Individual- and community-level mechanisms mediate these effects. Residents of impoverished neighborhoods or communities are at increased risk for mental illness,22, 23 chronic disease,17, 24 higher mortality, and lower life expectancy. Some population groups living in poverty may have more adverse health outcomes than others.
The Problem-solving Process
Define the problem. …
Identify indicators of the problem. …
Find data for the indicators. …
Identify stakeholders. …
Identify key determinants. …
Identify intervention strategies. …
Identify implementation strategies. …
Evaluate.
Inform, educate, and empower people about health issues. Mobilize community partnerships to identify and solve health problems. Develop policies and rules that support individual and community health efforts. Enforce laws, rules and regulations that protect public health and the environment and ensure safety.

ASSIGNMENT ON ECO 361
NAME: OZOR IFEDILICHUKWU PERPETUAL
REG. NUMBER: 2018/SD/37431
DEPARTMENT: EDUCATION/ECONOMICS

QUESTION 6
I. Structuralism : Is a development theory which focuses on structural aspects which impede the economic growth of developing countries. The unit of analysis is the transformation of a country’s economy from, mainly, a subsistence agriculture to a modern, urbanized manufacturing and service economy. This structural transformation of the developing country is pursued in order to create an economy which in the end enjoys self-sustaining growth. Structuralists argue that the only way Third World countries can develop is through action by the state. Third world countries have to push industrialization and have to reduce their dependency on trade with the First World, and trade among themselves.
II. Modernization theory : Is used to analyze the processes in which modernization in societies take place. The theory looks at which aspects of countries are beneficial and which constitute obstacles for economic development. The idea is that development assistance targeted at those particular aspects can lead to modernization of ‘traditional’ or ‘backward’ societies. Scientists from various research disciplines have contributed to modernization theory.
III. The basic needs model : This theory tries to define an absolute minimum of resources necessary for long-term physical well-being. Basic needs theory does not focus on investing in economically productive activities. Basic needs can be used as an indicator of the absolute minimum an individual needs to survive. Proponents of basic needs have argued that elimination of absolute poverty is a good way to make people active in society so that they can provide labor more easily and act as consumers and savers.
IV. Dependency theory : Dependency theory states that poor nations provide natural resources and cheap labor for developed nations, without which the developed nations could not have the standard of living which they enjoy. When underdeveloped countries try to remove the Core’s influence, the developed countries hinder their attempts to keep control. This means that poverty of developing nations is not the result of the disintegration of these countries in the world system, but because of the way in which they are integrated into this system.

QUESTION 7
– Population: Population is a considerable constraint on economic growth, either, and most commonly, because there is too a high rate of population growth for the country’s current resources, or because the population is growing too slowly or declining as a result of war, famine, or disease. Many economists see population growth as the single biggest issue facing developing countries.
– Corruption: Some developing economies suffer from corruption in many different sectors of their economies. Corruption comes in many forms, including the theft of public funds by politicians and government employees, and the theft and misuse of overseas aid. Bribery is also alleged to be a persistent threat, and tends to involve the issuing of government contracts. In some developing economies, bribery is the norm, and this seriously weakens the operation of the price mechanism.
– Debts: In the case of public sector funding, spare public funds are often used to repay previous debts, so there are fewer available funds for capital investment by government. This is often called the problem of debt overhang. The recent sovereign debt crisis has highlighted the problems faced by countries with large public debts, and how such debts limit the ability of government to inject spending into a developing economy.
– Productive inefficiency: Producers in less developed countries may not be able to produce at the lowest possible average cost. This may be because of the failure to apply technology to production, using obsolete technology, or because of the inability to achieve economies of scale. Opening up the economy to free trade may help reduce this type of inefficiency, and encourage technology transfer.
– Imbalances: Not all sectors of an economy are capable of growth. For some developing economies, too many scarce resources may be allocated to sectors with little growth potential. This is especially the case with the production of agriculture and commodities.In these sectors, there is little opportunity for economic growth because the impact of real and human capital development is small, and marginal factor productivity is very low. Failure to allocate scarce resources to where they are most productive can impose a limit on development.

QUESTION 8
Achieving change requires policy and programme actions that will improve women’s access to secure livelihoods and economic resources, alleviate their extreme responsibilities with regard to housework, remove legal impediments to their participation in public life, and raise social awareness through effective programmes of education and mass communication. The empowerment and autonomy of women and the improvement of their political, social, economic and health status is a highly important end in itself. The power relations that impede women’s attainment of healthy and fulfilling lives operate at many levels of society, from the most personal to the highly public. In addition, improving the status of women also enhances their decision-making capacity at all levels in all spheres of life, especially in the area of sexuality and reproduction. This, in turn, is essential for the long- term success of population programmes. Experience shows that population and development programmes are most effective when steps have simultaneously been taken to improve the status of women. In addition, it is essential for the achievement of sustainable development. In all parts of the world, women are facing threats to their lives, health and well- being as a result of being overburdened with work and of their lack of power and influence. In most regions of the world, women receive less formal education than men, and at the same time, women’s own knowledge, abilities and coping mechanisms often go unrecognized.

QUESTION 9
Less utilization of resources: Underemployment and veiled unemployment of human resources and less utilization of resources have resulted in low production in the agricultural sector. This brought a downfall in their standard of living.
Less productivity and capital in agriculture: In agriculture, the productivity level is very low due to subdivided and fragmented holdings, lack of capital, use of traditional methods of cultivation, illiteracy etc.
Increasing price rise: Poor is becoming poorer because of continuous and steep price rise. It has benefited a few people in the society and the persons in lower income group find it difficult to get their minimum needs.
Unemployment: One of the main causes of poverty is the continuous expanding army of unemployed in our country. The job seeker is increasing in number at a higher rate than the expansion in employment opportunities.
A short rate of economic development: In Nigeria, the rate of economic development is very low what is required for a good level. Therefore, there persists a gap between the level of availability and requirements of goods and services. The net result is poverty.
Improvements in progressive minimum wage is an effective for improving the lives of poor and also creating jobs for the unemployed.

QUESTION 10
According to Todaro and Smith (2012), the following three propositions constitute the essential components of this intermediate or consensus opinion.
i. The fundamental reason of low living standards, high disparities, and limited freedom of choice that characterize much of the developing world is not population increase. The root roots of these issues must be found in the hardship of impoverished families, particularly women, as well as in the failure of other areas of local and international development strategy.
ii. The population problem is more than just a matter of numbers; it also affects people’s quality of life and monetary well-being. As a result, the population size of developing nations must be considered alongside developed-country wealth in terms of the quantity, distribution, and usage of global resources, rather than merely in terms of developing countries’ indigenous resources.
iii. Rapid population expansion exacerbates underdevelopment issues and makes development prospects even more improbable. As previously stated, the current rate of growth indicates that, barring disaster, the population of emerging countries will rise considerably in the future decades, regardless of current fertility control strategies. As a result, while high population growth rates are not the primary cause of underdevelopment, they are key contributing factors in certain nations and regions around the world.
It is not wrong to say that having large families does not make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity. Resources are scarce, and by implication, individual are expected to make rational decisions, especially in an environment where there is widespread poverty and financial insecurity.

QUESTION 11
Lack of the Stock of Physical Capital:: The major cause of unemployment and underemployment in underdeveloped countries like India is the deficiency of the stock of capital in relation to the needs of the growing labour force.
Use of Capital Intensive Techniques: An important factor responsible for slow growth of employment has been the use of capital-intensive techniques of production, even in consumer goods industries where alternative labour-intensive techniques are available.
Inequitable Distribution of Land: Another cause of unemployment prevailing in the developing countries like India is inequitable distribution of land so that many agricultural households have no adequate access to land which is an important asset for agricultural production and employment.
Rigid Protective Labour Legislation: Another reason for the slow growth of employment in the organized sector has been the existence of unduly rigid protective labour legislation which makes it very difficult to retrench a worker who has been employed for 240 days.
Lack of Infrastructure: People still move from village to cities notwithstanding the the slim chances of getting of getting a job in hope that they could make a better living frequent better schools and get more comfortable lifestyle
QUESTION 12
– To understand if it is observed on a family level. When a family is healthy, both the mother and the father can hold a job, earn money which allows them to feed, protect and send their children to school. Healthy and well-nourished children will perform better in school and a better performance in school will positively
– Through labor productivity and the economic burden of illnesses, for example. Health also indirectly impacts economic growth since aspects such as child health affect the future income of people through the impact health has on education. This indirect impact is easier
– Impact their future income. If parents ensure that their children have a high probability of reaching adulthood, in general they will have fewer children and they will be able to invest more in health and education for each of them. Additionally, the loss of health affects the poor to a greater extent since the main, and at times, only asset they have is their body. When they become ill they have fewer alternative solutions and suffer greater consequences
– Health affects economic growth directly

QUESTION 13
When individuals suffer from poor health this will affect their attitude to work and as a result Economic growth and development will be reduced. Some procedures can be used to address this problem and they include;
– Improve Access to Care: Having access to care is the single most important factor for improving quality healthcare and patient outcomes. Patients must have access to the right care at the right time in order to get the right results. Of course, improving access to care doesn’t only refer to efforts to get patients to visit their primary care physician regularly or use preventive services such as early detection screenings. It can also mean improving how and where patients are able to access care.
– Focus on Patient Engagement: Patients can be the best advocates for their own health, but first they have to be engaged and taught to be proactive healthcare consumers. This is not an easy task, but it’s one that primary care providers are particularly well-prepared to undertake.
– Reducing poverty, improving nutrition and making sure people have access to safe water and sanitation, as well as strengthening national health systems, is of the utmost importance. Otherwise tackling one particular threat simply leaves people open to another deadly disease soon afterward. Tackling the structural causes of poverty and poor health, for example calling for measures to tackle inequality and injustices such as corporate tax evasion, are central to what is needed from the global community.

Eze Naomi Onyinyechi
2018/241870
Economics Major 300l
ECO 361 Online Quiz 3

6. Common theories of development economics include;
Mercantilism
Nationalism
Structural change theory, and
linear stages of growth model.
These theories are compatible because they show their ideologies from a position of strength the pace of development and otherwise.
Underdevelopment is viewed as an externally-induced process which is perpetuated by a small but powerful domestic elite who form an alliance with the international capitalist system. The “development of underdevelopment” is therefore systemic and path-dependent.

7. The pace of development can be slowed down, or even reversed, by various factors affecting the economy. Some of these constraints can be dealt with through economic and social policy, while others may be difficult to resolve.
Some of these constraints are;
Lack of human capital (labour force),
Inefficiencies within the micro-economy.
Missing markets,
Barriers to trade,
Imbalances in the structure of the economy,
A rapidly growing or declining population,
Lack of financial capital,
Poor governance and corruption,
Over-exploitation of environmental capital.

8. When we enhance women’s participation in development is essential not only for achieving social justice but also for reducing poverty. Worldwide experience shows clearly that supporting a stronger role for women contributes to economic growth, it improves child survival and overall family health, and it reduces fertility, thus helping to slow population growth rates. In short, investing in women is central to sustainable development.
When more women work, economies grow. Women’s economic empowerment boosts productivity, increases economic diversification and income equality in addition to other positive development outcomes. For example, increasing the female employment rates in OECD countries to match that of Sweden, could boost GDP by over USD 6 trillion, recognizing, however, that. growth does not automatically lead to a reduction in gender-based inequality. Conversely, it is estimated that gender gaps cost the economy some 15 percent of GDP.

9. Extreme poverty as defined by the international community is living below $1.90 a day. This seems to be the major element causing underdevelopment in most less developed countries.
The factors include: Corruption, Lack of economic infrastructure, poor access to education, and poor access to healthcare are causes of poverty among the poor.
Since it is not a problem peculiar to one country alone but rather a global issue, policies have been put in place as a measure to eradicate or dampen its presence, and most notable of this is the Millennium Development Goals (MDG’s) adopted by the UN in 2000 along with 7 other goals.

10. Rapid population growth has led to uncontrolled urbanization, which has produced overcrowding, destitution, crime, pollution, and political turmoil. Rapid growth has outstripped increases in food production, and population pressure has led to the overuse of arable land and its destruction. Rapid growth has also hampered economic development and caused massive unemployment. Food scarcity effects economic development in two respects. Firstly, inadequate supply of food leads to undernourishment of the people which lowers their productivity. It further reduces the production capacity of the workers, Secondly, the deficiency of food compels to import food grains which places as unnecessarily strain on their foreign exchange resources. Rapid growth of population is largely responsible for the perpetuation of vicious circle of poverty in underdeveloped countries. On account of rapid growth of population people are required to spend a major part of their income on bringing up their children.
Savings and rate of capital formation also remain low, reduction in per capita income, rise in general price level leading to sharp rise in cost of living. No improvement in agricultural and industrial technology, shortage of essential commodities, low standard of living, mass unemployment etc.
Thus, large families does not make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity.

11. It is now almost universally recognized that the chronic unemployment and underemployment in less developed countries are not due to the lack of aggregate effective demand which, according to J.M. Keynes, was responsible for unemployment in developed countries in times of depression. Rather it is stated to be due to the lack of land, capital and other complementary resources in relation to the total population and labour force.
Now, if the population grows faster than the stock of capital of a country, the entire addition to the labour force cannot be absorbed in productive employment because not enough instruments of production would be there to employ them. Since in less developed countries, the stock of capital has not been growing at a rate fast enough to keep pace with the growth of population, the ability to offer productive employment is very limited.

12. Health is a direct source of huma welfare and also an instrument for raising income levels. The positive impact that health has on growth and poverty reduction occurs through a number of mechanisms, such as through a reduction of production losses due to fewer worker illnesses, the increased productivity of adults as a result of better nutrition, lower absenteeism rates and improved learning among school .It ensures a productive human resource of the country. a healthy population also ensures more working days. This means that generation of work would be more. health also means mental health.
It is also a key indicator of a country’s progress: a nation with a healthy population is more likely to experience sustained growth.

13. The impact of poor public health on the prospects for development:
a. Poor health is a condition of inability to perform physically, mentally or socially of what is required from a person.
b. Poor health can limit one’s ability to work, reduce economic opportunities which limits development.
c. Poor public health can affect children’s cognitive development, and spur mental health problems. …
d. Poor population health is associated with lower savings rates, lower rates of return on capital, and lower levels of domestic and foreign investment; all of these factors can and do contribute to reductions in economic development (Ruger et al., 2006).
There is a toxic mix of problems including inaccessibility of quality health care, poor hygiene, corruption, malnutrition, lack of access to safe drinking water, poor health infrastructure, fake drugs, insufficient financial investment, and lack of sufficient health personnel.
What is needed to address the problems of poor public health include;
a. Revival of rural infrastructure and livelihood,
b. Free and accessible education,
c. Nutrition and early child development,
d. Social security measures,
e. Food security measures,
Other social assistance programs are to; Improve collection and monitoring of health data, Improve personnel development in the health care, Ensure the provision essential drug availability, Improve on immunization programs. Challenges in Africa, Improve the Doctor-Patient Ratio, Combat the Brain Drain Phenomenon, Better Medical Education, Increase the Budgetary Allocation, Widespread Public Awarenes, Incorporating Technology, human resource development, and capacity building.

NAME : URAMA ISAAC ANENECHUKWU
DEPARTMENT : ECONOMICS
REG. NO : 2018/243823
EMAIL : zik.edu.ng@gmail.com
QUESTION NUMBER 6 :
Which are the most influential theories of development, and are they compatible? Is underdevelopment an internally (domestically) or externally (internationally) induced phenomenon?
ANSWERS:
(a). Modernization theory :
Is used to analyze the processes in which modernization in societies take place. The theory looks at which aspects of countries are beneficial and which constitute obstacles for economic development. The idea is that development assistance targeted at those particular aspects can lead to modernization of ‘traditional’ or ‘backward’ societies. Scientists from various research disciplines have contributed to modernization theory
(b). Structuralism :
Is a development theory which focuses on structural aspects which impede the economic growth of developing countries. The unit of analysis is the transformation of a country’s economy from, mainly, a subsistence agriculture to a modern, urbanized manufacturing and service economy. Policy prescriptions resulting from structuralist thinking include major government intervention in the economy to fuel the industrial sector, known as import substitution industrialization (ISI). This structural transformation of the developing country is pursued in order to create an economy which in the end enjoys self-sustaining growth. This can only be reached by ending the reliance of the underdeveloped country on exports of primary goods (agricultural and mining products), and pursuing inward-oriented development by shielding the domestic economy from that of the developed economies. Trade with advanced economies is minimized through the erection of all kinds of trade barriers and an overvaluation of the domestic exchange rate; in this way the production of domestic substitutes of formerly imported industrial products is encouraged. The logic of the strategy rests on the infant industry argument, which states that young industries initially do not have the economies of scale and experience to be able to compete with foreign competitors and thus need to be protected until they are able to compete in the free market.[9] The Prebisch–Singer hypothesis states that over time the terms of trade for commodities deteriorate compared to those for manufactured goods, because the income elasticity of demand of manufactured goods is greater than that of primary products. If true, this would also support the ISI strategy.
Structuralists argue that the only way Third World countries can develop is through action by the state. Third world countries have to push industrialization and have to reduce their dependency on trade with the First World, and trade among themselves.
The roots of structuralism lie in South America, and particularly Chile. In 1950, Raul Prebisch went to Chile to become the first director of the Economic Commission for Latin America. In Chile, he cooperated with Celso Furtado, Aníbal Pinto, Osvaldo Sunkel, and Dudley Seers, who all became influential structuralists.
(c). Dependency theory :
It is essentially a follow up to structuralist thinking, and shares many of its core ideas. Whereas structuralists did not consider that development would be possible at all unless a strategy of delinking and rigorous ISI was pursued, dependency thinking could allow development with external links with the developed parts of the globe. However, this kind of development is considered to be “dependent development”, i.e., it does not have an internal domestic dynamic in the developing country and thus remains highly vulnerable to the economic vagaries of the world market. Dependency thinking starts from the notion that resources flow from the ‘periphery’ of poor and underdeveloped states to a ‘core’ of wealthy countries, which leads to accumulation of wealth in the rich states at the expense of the poor states. Contrary to modernization theory, dependency theory states that not all societies progress through similar stages of development. Periphery states have unique features, structures and institutions of their own and are considered weaker with regards to the world market economy, while the developed nations have never been in this colonized position in the past. Dependency theorists argue that underdeveloped countries remain economically vulnerable unless they reduce their connections to the world market.
Dependency theory states that poor nations provide natural resources and cheap labor for developed nations, without which the developed nations could not have the standard of living which they enjoy. When underdeveloped countries try to remove the Core’s influence, the developed countries hinder their attempts to keep control. This means that poverty of developing nations is not the result of the disintegration of these countries in the world system, but because of the way in which they are integrated into this system.
(d). The basic needs model :
It was introduced by the International Labour Organization in 1976, mainly in reaction to prevalent modernization- and structuralism-inspired development approaches, which were not achieving satisfactory results in terms of poverty alleviation and combating inequality in developing countries. It tried to define an absolute minimum of resources necessary for long-term physical well-being. The poverty line which follows from this, is the amount of income needed to satisfy those basic needs. The approach has been applied in the sphere of development assistance, to determine what a society needs for subsistence, and for poor population groups to rise above the poverty line. Basic needs theory does not focus on investing in economically productive activities. Basic needs can be used as an indicator of the absolute minimum an individual needs to survive.
Proponents of basic needs have argued that elimination of absolute poverty is a good way to make people active in society so that they can provide labor more easily and act as consumers and savers.[14] There have been also many critics of the basic needs approach. It would lack theoretical rigour, practical precision, be in conflict with growth promotion policies, and run the risk of leaving developing countries in permanent turmoil.
(e). Neoclassical development theory has it origins in its predecessor:
classical economics. Classical economics was developed in the 18th and 19th centuries and dealt with the value of products and on which production factors it depends. Early contributors to this theory are Adam Smith and David Ricardo. Classical economists argued – as do the neoclassical ones – in favor of the free market, and against government intervention in those markets. The ‘invisible hand’ of Adam Smith makes sure that free trade will ultimately benefit all of society. John Maynard Keynes was a very influential classical economist as well, having written his General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money in 1936.
Neoclassical development theory became influential towards the end of the 1970s, fired by the election of Margaret Thatcher in the UK and Ronald Reagan in the USA. Also, the World Bank shifted from its Basic Needs approach to a neoclassical approach in 1980. From the beginning of the 1980s, neoclassical development theory really began to roll out.
(f). Postdevelopment theory is a school of thought which questions the idea of national economic development altogether.
According to postdevelopment scholars, the goal of improving living standards leans on arbitrary claims as to the desirability and possibility of that goal. Postdevelopment theory arose in the 1980s and 1990s.
According to postdevelopment theorists, the idea of development is just a ‘mental structure’ (Wolfgang Sachs) which has resulted in a hierarchy of developed and underdeveloped nations, of which the underdeveloped nations desire to be like developed nations.[15] Development thinking has been dominated by the West and is very ethnocentric, according to Sachs. The Western lifestyle may neither be a realistic nor a desirable goal for the world’s population, postdevelopment theorists argue. Development is being seen as a loss of a country’s own culture, people’s perception of themselves and modes of life. According to Majid Rahnema, another leading postdevelopment scholar, things like notions of poverty are very culturally embedded and can differ a lot among cultures. The institutes which voice the concern over underdevelopment are very Western-oriented, and postdevelopment calls for a broader cultural involvement in development thinking.
Postdevelopment proposes a vision of society which removes itself from the ideas which currently dominate it. According to Arturo Escobar, postdevelopment is interested instead in local culture and knowledge, a critical view against established sciences and the promotion of local grassroots movements. Also, postdevelopment argues for structural change in order to reach solidarity, reciprocity, and a larger involvement of traditional knowledge.
II. Development theories are compatible because they involve one another in other to achieve the desired objectives.
III. Development is externally induced phenomena :
Underdevelopment is viewed as an externally-induced process which is perpetuated by a small but powerful domestic elite who form an alliance with the international capitalist system. The “development of underdevelopment” is therefore systemic and path-dependent.

QUESTION NUMBER 7.
What constraints most hold back accelerated growth, depending on local conditions?
(a). . Inefficiency
Productive inefficiency
Producers in less developed countries may not be able to produce at the lowest possible average cost. This may be because of the failure to apply technology to production, using obsolete technology, or because of the inability to achieve economies of scale. Opening up the economy to free trade may help reduce this type of inefficiency, and encourage technology transfer.
Allocative inefficiency
When developing economies remain closed to competition, when they are dominated by local monopolies, or when production is in the hands of the state, prices might not reflect the marginal cost of production. Opening up the economy to free trade, and privatisation of industry may help promote a more competitive environment, and reduce allocatively inefficiency.
(b). Population
Population is a considerable constraint on economic growth, either, and most commonly, because there is too a high rate of population growth for the country’s current resources, or because the population is growing too slowly or declining as a result of war, famine, or disease. Many economists see population growth as the single biggest issue facing developing countries. The line of argument runs as follows:
At first, the take-off phase of development and economic growth creates positive externalities from the application of science and technology to healthcare and education and this leads to a decline in the death rate, but no decline, or even an increase, in the birth rate. Over time life expectancy rises, but the age distribution remains skewed, with an increasing number of dependents in the lower age range. As a result, the number of consumers relative to producers increases.
The short-term gains from growth are quickly eroded as GDP per capita actually falls, hence, only when the birth rate falls will GDP per capita rise. In this case, there is a positive role for government in terms of encouraging a lower birth rate.
(c). Lack of real capital
Many developing economies do not have sufficient financial capital to engage in public or private investment. There are several reasons for this, including the following:
(d). Low growth
Growth is not sufficient to allow scarce financial resources to be freed up for non-current expenditure.
(e).. Lack of savings
A general lack of savings is often seen as the key reason why financial capital is in short supply. High interest rates to encourage saving will, of course, deter investment.
(f). Debts
In the case of public sector funding, spare public funds are often used to repay previous debts, so there are fewer available funds for capital investment by government. This is often called the problem of debt overhang. The recent sovereign debt crisis has highlighted the problems faced by countries with large public debts, and how such debts limit the ability of government to inject spending into a developing economy.
(g). Crowding out
In addition, because many developing economies have large public sectors, private investment may be crowded out by public sector borrowing. This means that a government may borrow from local capital markets, if indeed they exist, which causes a relative shortage of capital and raises interest rates.
(h). Absence of credit markets
Finally, there is an absence of credit markets in many developing economies, and this discourages both lenders and borrowers. Credit markets often fail to form because of the extremely high risks associated with lending in developing countries. This is one reason for the importance of micro-finance initiatives commonly found across India, Pakistan and some parts of Africa.
(i). Corruption
Some developing economies suffer from corruption in many different sectors of their economies. Corruption comes in many forms, including the theft of public funds by politicians and government employees, and the theft and misuse of overseas aid. Bribery is also alleged to be a persistent threat, and tends to involve the issuing of government contracts. In some developing economies, bribery is the norm, and this seriously weakens the operation of the price mechanism.
(j). Inadequate financial markets
Missing markets usually arise because of information failure. Because of asymmetric information lenders in credit markets may not be aware of the full creditworthiness of borrowers. This pushes up interest rates for all borrowers, even those with a good credit prospect
QUESTION NUMBER. 8
How can improvements in the role and status of women have an especially beneficial impact on development prospect
It is important to note that women are known for Giving birth, child(ren) upbringing and housewife duties only, Economic empowerment is the capacity of women and men to participate in, contribute to and benefit from growth processes in ways that recognise the value of their contributions, respect their dignity and make it possible to negotiate a fairer distribution of the benefits of growth.
(a). Economic empowerment increases women’s access to economic resources and opportunities including jobs, financial services, property and other productive assets, skills development and market information.
(b). Women’s economic empowerment is a prerequisite for sustainable development and for achieving the Millennium Development:
GoalsAnd economic empowerment is also a right. There is no quick fix: women’s economic empowerment takes sound public policies, a holistic approach and long-term commitment from all development actors. Donors can also increase their investment.
(c). Economically empowered women foster a sense of identity :

In Moldova, a country that gained independence only a generation ago and still struggles with its place in a complex geopolitical environment, citizens are striving to develop locally-made products that could reach similar renown and serve as points of collective pride. Empowering women-led and women-founded enterprises in the apparel sector has helped Moldova take a step in that direction. Joining together under the brand Din Inima: Branduri de Moldova (From the Heart: Brands of Moldova), women entrepreneurs have taken Moldovan-made apparel from a low-cost and low-quality necessity into a runway-worthy product, visibly increasing consumer loyalty and pride in locally-made apparel. Clothing will, of course, not single-handedly strengthen national identity, but the apparel sector’s success has helped foster a sense of national pride and cohesion. Aspiring entrepreneurs and artisans now have a model to draw from as they seek to make a name for Moldovan products globally.

(d). Economically empowered women, with a strong sense of community, can also be an important piece of the puzzle to countering violent extremism :
In a place like the Pankisi Gorge area of Georgia, inhabited largely by minority ethnic groups, creating economic opportunity for women allows them to pass on values of inter-ethnic trust and community identity to their children, laying the foundation for the development of a more resilient and stable community.

(e). Economically empowered women serve as climate-change-adaptation champions:

Adapting to climate change requires a willingness to do things differently than they have been done before and an ability to forego short-term gains in favor of long-term ones. In Morocco, women entrepreneurs have demonstrated these traits, recognizing success in their ventures and serving as climate change champions. When soil degradation and water scarcity made it increasingly difficult to make a living in Moroccan agricultural communities, Moroccan women spearheaded shifts in agricultural practices. Women producers switched from growing water-intensive traditional crops to less water-intensive medicinal and aromatic plants; they also began using renewable energy sources. The women are now securing a more sustainable income stream for their families and preventing further desertification through more efficient use of resources. Their entrepreneurial ability to adapt has allowed these women to help their families and help the planet.

(f). Economically empowered women shift gender norms :

It’s human nature: the first time we see something we deem odd, we stop, stare, and gossip about it to our neighbors. The second time we see it, we shake our head and sigh. The third time, we simply shrug our shoulders and move on; what was once odd has become normal. In Bangladesh’s staunchly patriarchal society, historically, women have been discouraged from working outside of the home. But, women pioneers in the dairy sector are now taking on roles such as mobile input providers and artificial inseminators, which is contributing to a shift in gender norms. Women working in these positions have improved daily milk production, increased household incomes, earned women respect for their technical competence, and begun normalizing women’s work outside the home.

(g). Economically empowered women contribute to better health and nutrition outcomes :

Increasing women’s incomes improves food security for children, by increasing the quantity, diversity, and nutrition value of food consumed in households. The same principle applies for women’s and children’s health; in numerous development contexts, a woman will have a hard time taking a day off and travelling to a distant clinic for services while her overwhelming concern remains how to feed her children. When a woman’s livelihood becomes stable because she learns to grow a more profitable crop or obtains financing to expand her business from a local village savings and lending association, she is able to afford more diverse, nutritious foods and take time off of work to seek health care for herself and for her family.
This week, as we continue to explore the meaning of economic empowerment, I am reminded of a woman who grows flowers in western Georgia. Combining her horticultural skills with business acumen, she ingeniously leveraged existing transportation networks, societal trust, and established relationships to grow her business, including using the ubiquitous marshrutka (public minibus) network to distribute fresh flowers around the region. Her bravery and ingenuity, and the bravery and ingenuity of all other women entrepreneurs, are an inspiration. Much progress remains to be made in the years to come, but it’s certain that supporting women such as these in their endeavors is not only the right thing to do – it’s the smart thing to do.
QUESTION NUMBER 9:
What are the causes of extreme poverty, and what policies have been most effective for improving the lives of the poorest of the poor?
ANSWERS:
Causes of extreme poverty :
(a). Government Corruption :
Since its founding, government corruption has plagued Nigeria. This corruption is one of the major causes of poverty in Nigeria. Government officials often take payments from oil companies that are supposed to go into public trusts—payments that can often total more than $1 billion—and instead siphon that money into their own personal bank accounts.
When government officials engage in this kind of corruption, the poor and underserved populations within Nigeria are inevitably hurt. If these large sums of money stopped going into government officials’ pockets, the Nigerian government could use that money to build up the country’s infrastructure—electricity, roads, running water and more.
(b). Lack of Economic Infrastructure :
An infrastructure that supports economic growth at every level is essential to pull people out of poverty. In Nigeria, economic infrastructure includes things like access to micro-credit that help farmers invest in their crops and entrepreneurs lift their businesses off the ground. Micro-credit is an especially important tool for Nigerian women working to escape poverty.
Female entrepreneurship and autonomy can provide financial stability to entire families and, by extension, larger communities. Another one of the main causes of poverty in Nigeria is the simple fact that many Nigerians, especially in rural communities, do not have the means to escape their circumstances. Setting up economic structures that empower Nigerian people is vital to combating poverty within the country.
(c). Poor Access to Education :
Economic infrastructure is not the only infrastructure that is lacking in Nigeria. Currently, a lack of a robust educational system underserves many of the poorest Nigerians. 10.5 million Nigerian children do not attend school at all, and 60% of those children are girls.
These problems are especially profound in the northern, more rural parts of Nigeria. Terrorist groups such as Boko Haram that vilify Western education further exasperate the situation. Education gives many the skills they need to enter the workforce and escape impoverishment, and the lack of educational opportunity is one of the truly devastating causes of poverty in Nigeria.
(d). Poor Access to Healthcare :
Nigeria might be the most populous country in Africa, but they are running low on healthcare professionals. The current ratio of nurses, midwives and doctors to patients is 1.95 to 1,000.
With such a low density of medical care available, many people in Nigeria either go completely without medical care or without enough medical care. But sickness is costly, and oftentimes can trap people into never-ending cycles of poverty. Improving Nigerians’ access to healthcare is an essential step to reduce the amount of poverty in Nigeria.
At the surface, these problems can seem daunting and unsolvable. But the first step to crafting sustainable solutions is understanding the contours of the problem. By understanding the causes of poverty in Nigeria, organizations like UNICEF and WHO have started various initiatives to strengthen the economic, education, and health care infrastructure in Nigeria, as well as reduce government corruption.
Working hand in hand with international partners, Nigeria is continuously demonstrating its commitment to crafting a better future for its impoverished citizens.
QUESTION NUMBER 10:
Rapid population growth threatening the economic progress of developing nations? Do large families make economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity?
ANSWERS:
Of course yes, Rapid population growth threaten economic progress of developing nations:
Rapid population growth leads to a country with a young average age. Young populations require creation of new infrastructure including shelter, health care, and schools. If the country has the resources to employ their new labor, the population increase can lead to rapid economic growth. If, on the other hand, the country cannot utilize its workforce productively, then unemployment rises, often leading to civil strife and emigration.
Rapid population growth causes increase in poverty and can also be known from its effect on agriculture. Increase in population raises population pressure on arable land and reduces land-man ratio which causes lower productivity per person and leads to disguised unemployment and poverty.
Rapid population growth has serious economic consequences. It encourages inequities in income distribution; it limits rate of growth of gross national product by holding down level of savings and capital investments; it exerts pressure on agricultural production and land; and it creates unemployment problems.
I will say “No” to the second question, Large families make no economic sense in an environment of widespread poverty and financial insecurity, Because large families is not quite encouraged.
A family is said to be large when it has three children or more.
The disadvantages of having a large family include financial stress, a missed connection with some of the children and emotional stress put on the family by the problems that others in the unit are experiencing.
Large families produce more delinquents and alcoholics. Perinatal morbidity and mortality rates are higher in large families as birth weights decrease. Mothers of large families are at higher risk of several physical diseases. Common methodological errors are indicated and exemplary studies are described.
Larger families devote more of their income to necessities and less to luxuries. … Overall, as the number of children grows, families spend a larger share of their income on current consumption, and per capita income declines.
QUESTION NUMBER 11.
Why is there so much unemployment and underemployment in the developing world, especially in the cities, and why do people continue to migrate to the cities from rural areas even when their chances of finding a conventional job are very slim?
ANSWER:
Unemployment and Underemployment in some country seems lower than other ones. The amount of working population of a nation or city goes a long way to determine the growth of the sectors of economic which are household, business and government. Developing countries such as most African countries and Asia face a large decline in employment and human resources. The following can cause unemployment and underemployment in this places mentioned;
Migration: We find out that people want to by all means meet or make ends meet. For such reason they leave there comfort no matter how little or much for better lives. Their new environment as results face congestion wherein they are few company and firms that need the service of this ones. The same persons make not meet the qualifications of the firm especially if the people are coming a rural setting with no experience with such duty they want to engage in.
Government decision: When the government of a particular area focuses development and growth in a particular area, say the capital of the nation or city, they try to improve the economic base forgetting other part of the country that needs these decision, the people from the latter leave to the former to be a part of the growth, abandoning other essential part or area where their should be an even development.
QUESTION NUMBER 12:
Wealthier societies are also healthier ones because they have more resources for improving nutrition and health care. But does better health also help spur successful development?
ANSWER:
Yes, better health spur successful development.
Because, in instrumental terms, health impacts economic growth in a number of ways. For example, it reduces production losses due to worker illness, it increases the productivity of adult as a result of better nutrition, and it lowers absenteeism rates and improves learning among school children.
(a). It increase life expectancy.
(b). Higher productivity.
(c). Improved quality of human life.
(d). Increase in labour force.
(e). Enhanced human capital development.
QUESTION NUMBER 13:
What is the impact of poor public health on the prospects for development, and what is needed to address these problems?
ANSWERS:
Individuals suffering from illness may be weak, unable to work or study and generally unable to provide for children and other dependants. At a more aggregated level, however, it seems likely that a high disease burden may have an adverse impact on a country’s productivity, growth and, ultimately, economic development.At a societal level, poor population health is associated with lower savings rates, lower rates of return on capital, and lower levels of domestic and foreign investment; all of these factors can and do contribute to reductions in economic growth .
Poor health can limit one’s ability to work, reduce economic opportunities, inhibit educational attainment, and lead to medical debt and bankruptcy.
(a). Reduces labour force.
(b). Decrease in quality of human life to contributes to economic development.
(c). Decrease in productivity.
(d). Reduces life expectancy.
(e). Decrease in human capital development.
Solutions to the problems :
(a). High investment in the health sector.
(b). Increase in health care infrastructures.
(c). Better health care equipments.
(d). Employment of qualified medical practitioners.
(e). Public enlightenment on better public health care maintenance.
(f). Monitor health status to identify community health problems.
(g). Diagonise and investigate health problems and health hazards in the community.
(h). Inform, educate, and empower people about health issues.
(i). Provide community partnerships to identify and solve health problems.
(j). Develop policies and rules that support individual and community health efforts.
(k). Enforce laws, rules and regulations that protect public health and the environment and ensure safety.
(l). Link people to needed medical and mental health services and assure the provisions of health care when not otherwise available.
(m). Assure a competent workforce within the health care industry and public health departments.