Eco. 0511 Assignment (Natural Resource Utilization in Nigeria) —6/7/2018

Coal
Nigerian coal is one of the most bituminous in the world owing to its low sulphur and ash content and therefore the most environment-friendly. There are nearly 3 billion tonnes of indicated reserves in 17 identified coal fields and over 600 million tonnes of proven reserves.
Talc
Over 40 million tonnes deposits of talc have been identified in Niger , Osun, Kogi, Ogun and Kaduna states. The Raw Materials Research and Development Council (RMRDC)'s 3,000 tonnes per annum catalytic Talc plant in Niger state is the only talc plant in the country. The talc industry represents one of the most versatile sectors of the industrial minerals of the world. The exploitation of the vast deposits would therefore satisfy local demand and that for export.
Gypsum
Gypsum is an important input for the production of cement. It is also used for the production of Plaster of Paris (P.O.P) and classroom chalks. A strategy for large-scale mining of gypsum is urgently required to sustain the existing plants and meet the future expansion. Currently, cement production is put at 8 million tonnes per annum while the national requirement is 9.6 million tonnes. About one billion tonnes of gypsum deposits are spread over many states in Nigeria.
Iron
There are over 3 billion metric tonnes of iron ore in deposits found in Kogi, Enugu and Niger States as well as the Federal Capital Territory . Iron Ore is being mined at Itakpe in Kogi State and is already being beneficiated, up to 67 per cent of iron. The Aladja and Ajaokuta Steel complexes are ready for consumer of billets and other iron products for down-stream industries.
Lead/Zinc
An estimated 10 million tonnes of lead/zinc veins are spread over eight states of Nigeria . Proven reserves in three prospects in the east-central area are 5 million tonnes. Joint venture partners are encouraged to develop and exploit the various lead/zinc deposits all over the country.
Bentonite/Baryte
These are the main constituents of the mud used in the drilling of all types of oil wells. The Nigerian baryte has specific gravity of about 4.3. Over 7.5 million tonnes of baryte have been identified in Taraba and Bauchi States. Large bentonite reserves of 700 million tonnes are available in many states of the federation ready for massive development and exploitation.
Gold
There are proven reserves of both alluvial and primary gold in the schist belt of Nigeria located in the south-western part of the country. The deposits are mainly alluvial and are currently being exploited on a small scale. Private investors are invited to stake concessions on these primary deposits.
Bitume
The occurrence of bitumen deposits in Nigeria is indicated at about 42 billion tonnes; almost twice the amount of existing reserves of crude petroleum. Analytical results suggest that this potential resource can be used directly as an asphalt binder. Most bitumen used for road construction in Nigeria is currently imported.
Rock/Salt
The national annual demand for table salt, caustic soda, chlorine, sodium bicarbonate, sodium hydrochloric acid and hydrogen peroxide exceeds one million tonnes. A colossal amount of money is expended annually to import these chemicals by chemical and processing companies including tanneries and those in food and beverages, paper and pulp, bottling and oil sector. There are salt springs at Awe ( Plateau State ), Abakaliki and Uburu ( Ebonyi State ), while rock salt is available in Benue State . A total reserve of 1.5 million tonnes has been indicated, and further investigations are now being carried out by Government.
Gemstones
Gemstones mining has boomed in various parts of Plateau, Kaduna and Bauchi states for years. Some of these gemstones include sapphire, ruby, aquamarine, emerald, tourmaline, topaz, garnet, amethyst; zircon, and flourspar which are among the world's best. Good prospects exist in this area for viable investments.
Kaolin
An estimated reserve of 3 billion tonnes of good kaolinitic clay has been identified in many localities in Nigeria.

INTRODUCTION
Natural resources are resources that exist without actions of humankind, and the law of the marker, the God, in expansion of growth and development is when it is being utilized in good action of management.

Nigeria is among countries in Africa with a wide variety in natural resources both minerals and agriculture. The country is richly endowed with natural resources ranging from industrial metals to various precious stones such as Barites, Gypsum, Kaolin and marble gold etc. Most of these natural resources has not been properly balanced in growth due to miss management, lack of skills, poor technology and corruption. These has given birth to poor generation of revenue and poor accumulation of capital, therefore making the vision of the new national policy on solid minerals, on ensuring the orderly development of the mineral resources of the country impossible. It also crippled the growth and development of Nigeria economy.

CPI on line encyclopedia, published August 2016 science and technology articles.

Here is a list of the Natural resources in Nigeria and where they can be found.
S/N STATES NATURAL RESOURCES RESOURCES THAT ARE UTILIZED RESOURCES THAT ARE UNDERUTILIZED RESOURCES THAT ARE MISSUTILIZED
1. Abia Gold, Lead/Zinc, Limestone, Oil/Gas, Salt Limestone, Oil/Gas, Salt Gold, Lead/Zinc Salt
2. Abuja Cassiterite,Clay ,Dolomite,Gold, Lead/Zinc, Marble, Tantalite Clay, Lead/Zinc, Marble, Cassiterite, Dolomite, Gold, Tantalite
3. Adamawa Bentonite, Gypsium, Kaolin, Magnesite Bentonite Kaolin, Gypsium, Magnesite
4. Akwa Ibom Clay, Lead/Zinc, Lignite, Limestone, Oil/Gas, Salt, Uranium Oil/Gas, Lead/Zinc and clay Uranium, Lignite Salt
5. Anambra Clay, Glass-Sand, Gypsium, Iron-ore, Lead/Zinc, Lignite,
Limestone, Phosphate & Salt Lead/Zinc,
Limestone, salt and clay Phosphate, Gypsium, Glass-Sand, Iron-ore
6. Bauchi Gold, Cassiterite (tine ore), Columbite, Gypsium, Wolfram, Coal, Limestone, Lignite, Iron-ore & Clay Iron-ore & Clay,
Limestone, Gypsium Gold, Cassiterite (tine ore), Columbite
7. Bayelsa Clay, Gypsium, Lead/Zinc, Lignite, Limestone, Maganese, Oil/Gas & Uranium Oil/Gas and Clay Lead/Zinc, Lignite, Limestone, Maganese Uranium
8. Benue Barite, Clay, Coal, Gemstone, Gypsium, Iron-Ore,
Lead/Zinc, Limestone, Marble, Salt Gemstone,
Salt
Marble, Clay and Limestone
Barite, Gypsium, Coal,Iron-Ore, Lead/Zinc

9. Borno Bentonite, Clay, Diatomite, Gypsium, Hydro-carbon,
Kaolin & Limestone Clay & Limestone Bentonite, Diatomite, Gypsium, Hydro-carbon,
Kaolin

22 Kebbi Gold Mis utilized
23 Kogi Cole, Dolomite, feldspar, Gypsium, Iron-ore, Kaolin, Marble, Talc and Tantalite All are underutilized
24 Kwara Cassiterite, Columbite, Feldspar, Gold, Iron-ore, Marble, Mica and Tantalite All are underutilized except Gold which is mis utilized
25 Lagos Bitumen, Clay and Glass-sand All are underutilized
26 Nasarawa Amethyst (Topaz Garnet), Barytex, Barite, Cassirite, Chalcopyrite, Clay, Columbite, Cooking coal, Dolomite/Marble, Feldspar, Galena, Iron-ore, Limestone, Mica, Salt, Sapphire, Talc, Tantalite, Tourmaline, Quartz and Zireon. All are underutilized
27 Niger Gold, Lead/zinc and Talc Gold is mis utilized, others are underutilized
28 Ogun Bitumen, Clay, Feldspar, Gemstone, Kaolin, Limestone and Phosphate All are underutilized
29 Ondo Bitumen, Clay, Coal, Dimension stones, Feldspar, Gemstone, Glass-sand, Granite, Gypsium, kaolin, Limestone and Oil/Gas All are underutilized except Oil/Gas which is fully utilized
30 Osun Columbite, Gold, Granite, Talc, Tantalite and Tourmaline All are underutilized except Gold which is mis utilized
31 Oyo Aquamarine, Cassiterite, Clay, Dolomite, Gemstone, Gold, Kaolin, Marble, Sillimanite, Talc and Tantalite All are underutilized except Gold which is mis utilized
32 Plateau Barite, Bauxite, Bentonite, Bismuth, Cassiterite, Clay, Coal, Emerald, Fluoride, Gemstone, Granite, Iron-ore, Kaolin, Lead/zinc, Marble, Molybdenite, Pyrochlore, Salt, Tantalite/Columbite, Tin and Wolfram All are underutilized
33 Rivers Clay, Glass-sand, Lignite, Marble and Oil/Gas All are underutilized except Oil/Gas which is fully Utilized
34 Sokoto Clay, Flakes, Gold, Granite, Gypsium, Kaolin, Laterite, Limestone, Phosphate, Potash, Silica, Sand and Salt All are underutilized except Gold which is mis utilized
35 Taraba Lead/zinc Underutilized
36 Yobe Soda Ash and Tintomite Underutilized
37 Zamfara Coal, Cotton and Gold Gold is mis utilized, others are underutilized.

 
NOTE: Nigeria is among the richest countries in natural resources. It ranks 4th in Africa and the 6th in the world, but it is poorer than some of the countries which are not endowed with any natural resources. Except Oil/gas which if fully utilized in Nigeria, every other natural endowment is underutilized or mis utilized. Talc for instance which is deposited in over 5 states in the country has only one Talc plant in Niger state. Gold is mis utilized where they are deposited because they are often mined illegally. With the high dependence on Oil/Gas and the global reduction in oil prices, Nigeria has seen the need for diversification. If Nigeria diversifies and exploits fully even half of the resources found in her country, economic growth will increase geometrically.

CONCLUSION
Nigeria is a country blessed with different types of Natural resources, both mineral and agriculture. These natural resources exist in multitude in different location across Nigeria but the problem is that most of these resources are not been used properly and some are been misused, some by government some by private sectors and thus causing some states in Nigeria to be under developed. This also has crippled the Nigerian economy because revenues are not always generated enough to go round the states. Nevertheless, One of the objectives of the new National Policy on Solid Minerals is to ensure the orderly development of the mineral resources of the country.

REFERENCES

Adesoji A.A and Sotubo O.D (2013). Non-Oil Exports in the Economic Growth of Nigeria: A Study of Agricultural and Mineral Resources. Journal of Educational and Social Research, 3 (2):403-418. Aluko, S. (1971): Industrialisation in Nigeria. Quarterly Journal of Administration, IX (2).

Adesopo, A.A and Asaju, A. S. (2004). Natural Resource Distribution, Agitation for Resource Control Right and the Practice of Federalism in Nigeria. Journal of Human Ecology, 15(4): 277-289.

Bridge. G. (2008). Economic Geography Natural Resources, In:
International Encyclopedia of Human Geography (eds). Kitchen and Nigeria Natural Resource Charter (2014): Summary of the 2014 Benchmarking Report.

Okeke, C.N. (2008). Geology and Mineral Resources: Blessing or Curse? The International Lawyer, 42 (1); 193-210.

The profile of solid mineral deposits in Nigeria
Taking that Nigeria oil reserves are 23 Billion barrels; the gas reserves are 160 Trillion cubic meters.
Coal
Nigerian coal is one of the most bituminous in the world owing to its low sulphur and ash content and therefore the most environment-friendly. There are nearly 3 billion tonnes of indicated reserves in 17 identified coal fields and over 600 million tonnes of proven reserves.
Talc
Over 40 million tonnes deposits of talc have been identified in Niger , Osun, Kogi, Ogun and Kaduna states. The Raw Materials Research and Development Council (RMRDC)'s 3,000 tonnes per annum catalytic Talc plant in Niger state is the only talc plant in the country. The talc industry represents one of the most versatile sectors of the industrial minerals of the world. The exploitation of the vast deposits would therefore satisfy local demand and that for export.
Gypsum
Gypsum is an important input for the production of cement. It is also used for the production of Plaster of Paris (P.O.P) and classroom chalks. A strategy for large-scale mining of gypsum is urgently required to sustain the existing plants and meet the future expansion. Currently, cement production is put at 8 million tonnes per annum while the national requirement is 9.6 million tonnes. About one billion tonnes of gypsum deposits are spread over many states in Nigeria.
Iron
There are over 3 billion metric tonnes of iron ore in deposits found in Kogi, Enugu and Niger States as well as the Federal Capital Territory . Iron Ore is being mined at Itakpe in Kogi State and is already being beneficiated, up to 67 per cent of iron. The Aladja and Ajaokuta Steel complexes are ready for consumer of billets and other iron products for down-stream industries.
Lead/Zinc
An estimated 10 million tonnes of lead/zinc veins are spread over eight states of Nigeria . Proven reserves in three prospects in the east-central area are 5 million tonnes. Joint venture partners are

13 Edo Bitumen, Clay Dolomite, Phosphate, Glass-sand, Gold,
Gypsium,Iron-ore, Lignite, Limestone, Marble& Oil/Gas Limestone, Marble& Oil/Gas, Iron-ore and Clay Bitumen, Dolomite, Phosphate, Glass-sand, Gold,
Gypsium,Iron-ore, Lignite Clay and Oil/Gas
14 Ekiti Feldspar, Granite, Kaolin, Syenite& Tatium Granite Feldspar and
Syenite

15 Enugu Coal, Lead/Zinc & Limestone Coal, Lead/Zinc & Limestone Lead/Zinc & Limestone coal
16 Gombe Gemstone and Gypsium Gemstone Gemstone and Gypsium
17 Imo Gypsium, Lead/Zinc, Lignite, Limestone, Marcasite,
Oil/Gas, Phosphate & Salt Lead/Zinc, Limestone, Oil/Gas Marcasite, Phosphate & Lignite Salt
18 Jigawa Butyles Butyles
19 Kaduna Amethyst, Aqua Marine, Asbestos, Clay, Flosper,
Gemstone, Gold, Graphite, Kaolin, Hyanite, Mica, Rock
Crystal, Ruby, Sapphire, Sihnite, Superntinite, Tentalime,
Topaz and Tourmaline Graphite and Clay Amethyst, Aqua Marine, Asbestos, Gemstone, Gold, Graphite, Kaolin, Hyanite, Mica, Rock
Crystal, Ruby, Sapphire, Sihnite, Superntinite, Tentalime,
Topaz, Tourmaline
20 Kano Gassiterite, Copper, Gemstone, Glass-sand, Lead/Zinc,
Pyrochinre, Tantalite Copper, Lead/Zinc Copper, Gemstone, Glass-sand,
Pyrochinre, Tantalite
21 Katsina Kaolin, Marble, Salt Marble, Salt Kaolin Salt
22 Kebbi Gold Gold
23 Kogi Cole, Dolomite, Feldspar, Gypsium, Iron-ore, Kaolin,
Marble, Talc & Tantalite Marble,
Iron-ore
Dolomite, Feldspar,
Talc & Tantalite
Iron-ore

24 Kwara Cassiterite, Columbite, Feldspar, Gold, Iron-ore, Marble,
Mica & Tantalite Iron-ore, Marble Cassiterite, Columbite, Feldspar, Gold,
Mica & Tantalite

25 Lagos Bitumen, Oil/Gas Clay & Glass-sand Clay & Glass-sand Glass-sand Oil/Gas
26 Nasarawa Amethyst (Topaz Garnet), Barytex, Barite, Cassirite,
Chalcopyrite, Clay, Columbite, Coking Coal,
Dolomite/Marble, Feldspar, Galena, Iron-ore, Limstone,
Clay, Coking Coal, Limstone Amethyst (Topaz Garnet), Barytex, Barite, Cassirite,
Chalcopyrite, Clay, Columbite,
Dolomite/Marble, Feldspar, Galena, Iron-ore
27 Niger Gold, Lead/Zinc& Talc Lead/Zinc Gold & Talc
28 Ogun Bitumen, Clay, Feldspar, Gemstone, Kaolin,Limestone &
Phosphate Bitumen, Clay,
Limestone
Feldspar, Gemstone, Kaolin &
Phosphate
29 Ondo Bitumen, Clay, Coal, Dimension Stones, Feldspar,
Gemstone, Glass-Sand, Granite, Gypsium, Kaolin,
Limestone, Oil/Gas Bitumen, Clay, Granite,
Limestone & Oil/Gas Coal, Dimension Stones, Feldspar,
Gemstone, Glass-Sand, Gypsium, Kaolin
30 Osun Columbite,Gold, Granite,Talc,
Tantalite,Tourmaline Granite Columbite,Gold,Talc,
Tantalite,Tourmaline

Here is a list of the Natural resources in Nigeria and where they can be found.
S/N STATES NATURAL RESOURCES RESOURCES THAT ARE UTILIZED RESOURCES THAT ARE UNDERUTILIZED RESOURCES THAT ARE MISSUTILIZED
1. Abia Gold, Lead/Zinc, Limestone, Oil/Gas, Salt Limestone, Oil/Gas, Salt Gold, Lead/Zinc Salt
2. Abuja Cassiterite,Clay ,Dolomite,Gold, Lead/Zinc, Marble, Tantalite Clay, Lead/Zinc, Marble, Cassiterite, Dolomite, Gold, Tantalite
3. Adamawa Bentonite, Gypsium, Kaolin, Magnesite Bentonite Kaolin, Gypsium, Magnesite
4. Akwa Ibom Clay, Lead/Zinc, Lignite, Limestone, Oil/Gas, Salt, Uranium Oil/Gas, Lead/Zinc and clay Uranium, Lignite Salt
5. Anambra Clay, Glass-Sand, Gypsium, Iron-ore, Lead/Zinc, Lignite,
Limestone, Phosphate & Salt Lead/Zinc,
Limestone, salt and clay Phosphate, Gypsium, Glass-Sand, Iron-ore
6. Bauchi Gold, Cassiterite (tine ore), Columbite, Gypsium, Wolfram, Coal, Limestone, Lignite, Iron-ore & Clay Iron-ore & Clay,
Limestone, Gypsium Gold, Cassiterite (tine ore), Columbite

INTRODUCTION
The evolution of human society has rested on the sustained interaction between man and his natural environment. This interaction largely depends on man’s ability to harness natural resources in the quest for meeting his survival and developmental needs. Adesopo and Asaju (2004) defined natural resources as those things available to man as “gifts of nature” which are either renewable or non-renewable, such as mineral, water, and agricultural, forest and atmospheric resources. The pivotal role of natural resources in socio-economic development process has long been established by scholars. For example, Romer (1996) and Wright (1990) separately aver that the origins of rapid industrial and economic expansion in the United States of America (USA) over 1879-1940 were strongly linked to the exploitation of abundant non-reproducible natural resources, particularly energy and mineral resources. In supporting this, Barlowe (1978) described natural resources as productive assets which support economic development and sustain human populations.

26.
Nassarawa
Amethyst, (Topaz Garnet), Barytex, Barite, Cassirite, Chalcopyrite, Clay, Columbite, Cooking Coal, Dolomite, Marble, Feldspar, Galena,
Iron-ore, Limestone, Mica, Salt, Sapphire, Talc, Tantalite, Quartz & Zireon
Clay, Cooking Coal & Limestone
Amethyst, Baryte, Cassiterite, Chalcopyrite, Columbite, Dolomite, Marble, Feldspar, Galena, Iron-ore, Mica, Salt, Sapphire, Talc, Tantalite

27.
Niger
Gold, Lead/ Zinc & Talc
Lead/Zinc
Gold, Talc

28.
Ogun
Bitumen, Clay, Feldspar, Gemstone, Kaolin, Limestone & Phosphate
Bitumen, Clay & Limestone
Feldspar, Gemstone, Kaolin & Phosphate

No/s
States
Natural Resources
Resources That Are Utilized
Resources That Are Under-utilized
Resources That Are Mis-utilized

29.
Ondo
Bitumen, Clay, Coal, Dimension Stones, Feldspar, Gemstone, Glass-sand, Granite, Gypsium, Kaolin, Limestone & Oil/Gas
Bitumen, Clay & Limestone, Oil/Gas, Granite
Feldspar, Gemstone, Kaolin, Coal, Gypsium, Dimension Stone.

30.
Osun
Columbite, Gold, Granite, Talc, Tantalite & Tourmaline
Garanite
Columbite, Gold, Talc, Tantalite & Tourmaline

31.
Oyo
Aqua marine, Cassiterite, Clay, Dolomite, Gemstone, Gold, Kaolin, Marble, Silimonite, Talc & Tantalite
Clay, Marble
Gold, Cassiterite, Dolomite, Gemstone, Kaolin, Talc, Tantalite, Silimonite & Aqua Marine
Clay

32.
Plateau
Barite, Bauxite, Betonite, Bismuth, Cassiterite, Clay, Coal, Emeral, Flouride, Gemstone, Granite, Iron-ore, Kaolin, Lead/Zinc, Marble, Molybdenite, Phrochlore, Salt, Tantalite, Columbite, Tin & Wolfram
Clay, Salt, Iron-ore, Marble, Lead/Zinc
Barite, Bauxite, Bentonite, Bismuth, Cassiterite, Emeral, Flouride, Gemstone, Granite, Kaolin, Tantalite, Wolfram, Molybdenite, Phrochlore, Columbite, Tin, Coal
Clay

No/s
States
Natural Resources
Resources That Are Utilized
Resources That Are Under-utilized
Resources That Are Mis-utilized

33.
Rivers State
Clay, Glass-sand, Lignite, Marble & Oil/ Gas
Oil/Gas
Glass-sand, Lignite & Marble

34.
Sokoto
Clay, Flakes, Gold, Granite, Gypsium, Kaolin, Laterite, Limestone, Phosphate, Potash, Silica, Sand & Salt
Clay, Limestone & Salt
Gold, Granite, Gypsium, Kaolin, Laterite, Potash, Phosphate, Silica, Sand

35.
Taraba
Lead/Zinc, Kaolin
Lead/Zinc
Kaolin

36.
Yobe
Soda Ash & Tintomite

Tintomite

37.
Zamfara
Coal, Cotton & Gold
Cotton
Gold, Coal & Cotton

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS

TOPIC:
NATURAL RESOURCES UTILIZATION, UNDERUTILIZATION AND MISUTILIZATION IN THE 36 STATES OF NIGERIA

AN ASSIGNMENT WRITTEN IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE REQUIREMENT OF THE COURSE: ECO 0511 (PROBLEM AND POLICIES OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT)

BY:
SORONNADI JOSHUA CHISOM
PG/PGD/17/

APPLICATION NUMBER: UNN/PG/2017-18/000596

LECTURER:
DR. A. ORJI

JULY 2018

INTRODUCTION
Nigeria, giant of Africa, has forged ahead as a united entity despite having about 250 ethnic groups, having got independence on October 1, 1960, today, it has 36 states and a federal capital territory, Abuja. Lagos, the former capital remains the country’s commercial nerve-centre. Port Harcourt City, and indeed, most of the south-south states, serves as the oil and gas hub of the country.
Despite political and religious differences among its people, Nigeria remains a land of opportunities. Its Natural Resources include petroleum, natural gas, tin, columbite, iron ore, coal, limestone, lead, zinc, hydropower and arable land. However oil and gas account for more than 90% of the country’s foreign exchange earnings. Agriculture, the petrochemicals, power, rail transportation, refineries, infrastructures, manufacturing etc. have huge investment opportunities for the country.
A warm people, Nigerians – 156 million by 2006 census – occupy a total area of 910,768 square kilometers. The main ethnic groups are Hausa, Ibo and Yoruba but the official and rainfall. Major Religions are Christianity, Islam and indigenous belief.
Nigeria has huge market, and is a heaven for investments.

NATURAL RESOURCES OF THE 36 STATES OF NIGERIA STATING HOW THE RESOURCES ARE BEING UTILIZED
No/s
States
Natural Resources
Resources That Are Utilized
Resources That Are Under-utilized
Resources That Are Mis-utilized

1.
Abia
Gold, Lead/Zinc, Limestone, Oil/Gas & Salt
Oil/ Gas, Limestone
Lead/Zinc, Gold
Salt.

2.
Abuja
Cassiterite, Clay, Dolomite, Gold, Lead/Zinc, Marble, & Tantalite
Clay, Lead/Zinc, Marble
Gold, Dolomite, Cassiterite, Tantalite

3.
Adamawa
Bentonite, Gypsium, Koalin & Mangnesite
Bentonite
Gypsium , Kaolin, Mangnesite

4.
Akwa Ibom
Clay, Lead/ Zinc, Lignite, Limestone, Oil/Gas, Salt & Uranium
Oil/Gas, Limestone, Clay, Lead/ Clay
Uranium, Lignite
Salt

5.
Anambra
Clay, Glass-sand , Gypsium, Iron-ore, Lead/Zinc, Lignite, Limestone, Phosphate, & Salt, Oil & Gas
Lead/Zinc, Limestone, Salt, Clay
Phosphate, Gypsium, Iron-ore, Glass-sand

6.
Bauchi
Gold, Cassiterite (tine ore), Columbite, Gypsium , Wolfram, Coal, Limestone, Lignite, Iron-ore & Clay
Lead/Zinc, Gypsium, Clay, Limestone
Uranium, Iron-ore, Gold, Columbite, Cassiterite, Lignite, Coal

No/s
States
Natural Resources
Resources That Are Utilized
Resources That Are Under-utilized
Resources That Are Mis-utilized

7.
Bayelsa
Clay, Gypsium, Lead/Zinc, Lignite, Limestone, Manganese, Oil/Gas & Uranium
Oil/Gas, Clay
Lignite, Limestone, Uranium, Gypsium, Lead/Zinc, Manganese
Oil/Gas, Clay

8.
Benue
Barite, Clay, Coal, Gemstone, Gypsium, Iron-ore, Lead/Zinc, Limestone, Marble & Salt
Gemstone, Salt, Marble, Clay, Limestone
Barite, Gypsium, Iron-ore, Coal, Lead/ Zinc

9.
Borno
Bentonite, Clay, Diatomite, Gypsium, Hydrocarbon, Kaolin & Limestone
Clay, Limestone
Bentomite, Diatomite, Hydrocarbon, Gypsium, Kaolin

THE NIGERIAN STATES AND THEIR MINERAL RESOURCES

STATES MINERAL RESOURCES FOUND
1. ABIA – Gold, Salt, Limestone, Lead/Zinc, Oil and Gas.
2. ADAMAWA – Kaolin, Bentonite, Gypsum, Magnesite, Barytes, Bauxite.
3. AKWAIBOM – Clay, Limestone, Lead/Zinc, Uranium, Salt, Lignite, Oil and Gas.
4. ANAMBRA – Lead/Zinc, Clay, Limestone, Iron-ore, Lignite, Salt, B glass-sand, Phosphate, Gypsum.
5. BAUCHI – Amethyst (violent), Gypsum, Lead/Zinc, Uranium.
6. BAYELSA – Clay, Gypsum, Limestone, Uranium, Manganese, Lignite, Lead/Zinc, Oil and Gas.
7. BENUE – Lead/Zinc, Limestone, Iron-ore, Coal, Clay, Marble, Bauxite, Salt, Barutes, Gemstone, Gypsum, Oil and Gas.
8. BORNO – Diatomite, Clay, Limestone, Kaolin, Bentonite, Oil and Gas.
9. CROSS RIVER – Limestone, Uranium, Manganese, Lignite, Lead/Zinc, Salt, Oil and Gas.
10. DELTA – Marble, Glass-sand, Clay, Gypsum, Lignite, Iron-ore, Kaolin, Oil and Gas.
11. EBONYI – Lead/Zinc, Gold, Salt.
12. EDO – Marble, Clay, Limestone, Iron-ore, Gypsum, Glass-sand, Gold, Dolomite, Phosphate, Bitumen, Oil and Gas.
13. EKITI – Kaolin, Feldspar, Tatium, Granite, Syenites.
14. ENUGU – Coal, Limestone, Lead/Zinc.
15. GOMBE – Gemstone, Gypsum.
16. IMO – Lead/Zinc, Limestone, Lignite, Phosphate, Marcasite, Gypsum, Salt, Oil and Gas.
17. JIGAWA – Barites
18. KADUNA-Sapphire, Kaolin, Gold, Clay, Serpentinite, Asbestos, Amethyst, Kyanite, Graphite, Mica, Aquamatine, Ruby, Rock, Crystal, Topaz, Flouspar, Tourmaline, Gemstone, Tantalite.
19. KANO – Pyrochlore, Cassiterite, Copper, Glass-sand, Gemstone, Lead/Zinc, Tantalites.
20. KATSINA – Kaolin, Marble, Salt.
21. KEBBI – Gold.
22. KOGI – Iron-ore, Kaolin, Gypsum, Feldspar, Coal, Marble, Dolomite, Talc, Tantalite, Limestone, Gemstone, Bitumen.
23. KWARA – Gold, Marble, Iron-ore, Cassiterine, Columbite, Tantalite, Feldspar, Mica.
24. LAGOS – Glass-sand, Clay, Bitumen, Sand, Tar, Oil and Gas.
25. NASARAWA – Bery(Emerald,Acquamarine and Hellodor), Dolomite/Marble, Sapphire, Tourmaline, Quartz, Amethst(Garnet, Topaz), Zircon, Tantalite, Cassiterite, Columbite, Ilmenite, Galena, Iron-ore, Barites, Feldspar, Limestone, Mica, Cooking coal, Talc, Clay, Salt, Chalcopyrite.
26. NIGER – Gold, Lead/Zinc, Iron-ore.
27. OGUN – Phosphate, Clay, Feldspar.
28. ONDO – Bitumen, Kaolin, Gemstone, Gypsum, Feldspar, Granite, Clay, Grass-sand, Dimension stone, Coal, Bauxite, Oil and Gas.
29. OSUN – Gold, Talc, Tantalite, Tourmalite, Columbite, Granite.
30. OYO – Kaolin, Marble, Clay, Sillimalite, Talc, Gold, cassiterine, Acquamarine, Dolomite, Gemstone, Tantalite.
31. PLATEAU – Emerald, Tin, Marble, Granite, Tantalite, Columbite, Lead/Zinc, Barytes, Iron-ore, Kaolin, Cassiterite, Gold, Dolomite, Bentonites, Phsochlore, Clay, Coal, Wolram, Salt, Bismuth, Fluoride, Molybdenite, Gemstone, Bauxite.
32. RIVERS – Glass-sand, Clay, Marble, Lignite, Oil and Gas.
33. SOKOTO-Kaolin, Gold, Limestone, Phosphate, Gypsum, Silica-sand, Clay, Laterite, Potash, Flake, Granite, Gold, Salt.
34. TARABA – Kaolin, Lead/Zinc.
35. YOBE – Diatomite, Soda, Ash and Tintomite.
36. ZAMFARA – Gold, Coal.
37. ABUJA – Marble, Clay, Tantalite.

COMMENT: From the above, it has shown that Nigeria is among countries in Africa with a wider variety of different natural resources. The country is richly endowed with natural resources ranging from industrial metals to various precious stones such as Barites, Gypsum, Kaolin and Marble. Most of these minerals are yet to be exploited. Statistically, the level of exploitation of these minerals is very low in relation to the extent of deposit found in the country hence unutilised.

9. Borno Bentonite, clay, diatomite, gypsum, hydrocarbon, kaolin and limestone.
Clay, limestone Bentonite, diatomite, Hydrocarbon, gypsum, kaolin.
10. Delta Clay, glass-sand, Gypsum, iron-ore, kaolin lignite, marble and oil/gas Oil/gas, clay, marble Glass sand, Gypsum, iron-ore kaolin. Oil/gas
11. Ebonyi Gold, lead/zinc and salt Salt/lead/zinc Gold Salt
12. Edo Bitumen, clay dolomite, phosphate, glass-sand, gold, Gypsum, iron ore, lignite, limestone, marble and oil/gas Clay, oil/gas, iron-ore limestone, bitumen marble Phosphate, dolomite gold, lignite, glass sand, Gypsum Oil/gas, clay
13. Ekiti Feldspar, granite, kaolin, and syenite. Granite Feldspar, syenite,
14. Enugu coal, lead/zinc and limestone gemstone and Gypsum Coal, lead/zinc limestone Limestone, lead/zinc Coal
15. Gombe Genstone and gypsum Genstone Gemstone and gypsum
16. Imo Gypsum, lead/zinc, lignite limestone, marcasite, oil/gas, phosphate and salt
Oil/gas, lead/zinc limestone, salt Marcasite, phosphate gypsum, lignite Salt
17. Cross Rive Barite, lead/zinc, lignite, limestone, manganese, oil/gas, salt and uranium Oil/gas, limestone, lead/zinc, salt Barite, uranium maganese, lignite Oil/gas, salt
18. Jigawa Butyl Butyl
19. Kaduna Amethyst, aqua marina, asbestos, clay, gemstone gold, graphite, kaolin, hyanite, mica, rock, crystal. Clay, graphite, Amethyst, aqua marina, asbestos, gemstone gold, mica, rock, crystal, hyanite kaolin.
20. Kano Cassiterite, copper, gemstone, glass- sand, lead/zinc, and tantalite Copper, lead/zinc Copper, cassiterite, Gemstone, Glass-sand and Tantalite
21. Kastina Kaolin, Marble and salt Salt, Marble Kaolin Salt
22. Kebbi Gold Gold
23. Kogi Coal, Dolomite, Feldspar, Gypsum, Iron-ore, Kaolin, Marble, Talc and Tantalite. Marble, coal, Iron-ore Dolomite, Feldspar, Gypsum, Talc and Tantalite. Iron-ore
24. Kwara Cassiterite, Columbite, Feldspar, Gold, Iron-ore, Marble, Mica and Tantalite Marble and iron-ore Cassiterite, Columbite, Feldspar, Gold, Mica and Tantalite
25. Lagos Bitumen, oil/gas, clay and glass-sand Oil/gas, Bitumen and clay Glass-sand Oil/Gas
26. Nasarawa Amethyst, Baryte, Cassiterite, chalcopyrite, clay, columbite, cooking coal, dolomite, Marble, Feldspar, Gelena, Iron-ore, Limestone, Mica,Salt, Sapphire, Talc, Tantalite, Tourmaline, Quartz and Zircon Clay, Cooking coal and limestone Amethyst, Baryte, Cassiterite, chalcopyrite, columbite, dolomite, Marble, Feldspar, Gelena, Iron-ore, Mica,Salt, Sapphire, Talc, Tantalite,
27. Niger Gold, Lead/Zinc and Talc Lead/Zinc Gold ,Talc
28. Ogun Bitumen, Clay, Feldspar, Gemstone, Kaolin, Limestone and Phosphate. Bitumen, Clay and Limestone Feldspar, Gemstone, Kaolin and Phosphate
29. Ondo Bitumen, clay, Coal, Dimension stone, Feldspar, Gemstone, Glass-sand, Granite, Gypsum, Kaolin, Limestone and oil/gas Bitumen, Clay, Oil/gas, Limestone and Granite Coal, Gemstone, feldspar, Gypsum,
Kaolin, Dimension stone
30. Osun Columbite, Gold, Granite, Talc, Tantalite and Tourmaline Garanite Columbite, Gold, Talc, Tantalite and tourmaline
31. Oyo Aqua marine, Cassiterite, Clay, Dolomite, Gemstone, Gold, Kaolin, Marble, Silimonite,, Talc and Tantalite

Clay, Marble Gold, Cassiterite, Dolomite, Gemstone, Kaolin, Talc, Tantalite, Silimonite and Aqua marine Clay

26. Nasarawa Amethyst, Baryte, Cassiterite, chalcopyrite, clay, columbite, cooking coal, dolomite, Marble, Feldspar, Gelena, Iron-ore, Limestone, Mica,Salt, Sapphire, Talc, Tantalite, Tourmaline, Quartz and Zircon

Clay, Cooking coal and limestone Amethyst, Baryte, Cassiterite, chalcopyrite, columbite, dolomite, Marble, Feldspar, Gelena, Iron-ore, Mica,Salt, Sapphire, Talc, Tantalite,
27. Niger Gold, Lead/Zinc and Talc Lead/Zinc Gold ,Talc
28. Ogun Bitumen, Clay, Feldspar, Gemstone, Kaolin, Limestone and Phosphate. Bitumen, Clay and Limestone Feldspar, Gemstone, Kaolin and Phosphate
29. Ondo Bitumen, clay, Coal, Dimension stone, Feldspar, Gemstone, Glass-sand, Granite, Gypsum, Kaolin, Limestone and oil/gas Bitumen, Clay, Oil/gas, Limestone and Granite Coal, Gemstone, feldspar, Gypsum,
Kaolin, Dimension stone
30. Osun Columbite, Gold, Granite, Talc, Tantalite and Tourmaline Garanite Columbite, Gold, Talc, Tantalite and tourmaline
31. Oyo Aqua marine, Cassiterite, Clay, Dolomite, Gemstone, Gold, Kaolin, Marble, Silimonite,, Talc and Tantalite

Clay, Marble Gold, Cassiterite, Dolomite, Gemstone, Kaolin, Talc, Tantalite, Silimonite and Aqua marine Clay
32. Plateau Barite, Bauxite, Bentonite, Bismuth, Cassiterite, Clay, Coal, Emerald, Fluoride, Gemstone, Granite, Iron-ore, Kaolin, Lead/ zinc, Marble, Molybdenum, Phrochlore, Salt, Tantalite/ Columbite, Tin and Wolfram Clay, Salt, Iron-ore, Marble, Lead/ Zinc Barite, Bauxite, Bentonite, Bismuth, Cassiterite, Emerald, Fluoride, Gemstone, Granite, Kaolin, Tantalite, Wolfram Molybdenum, Phrochlore, Columbite and Tin, Coal Clay
33. Rivers Clay, Glass-sand, Lignite, Marble and oil/Gas Oil/ Gas Glass- sand, Lignite and Marble
34. Sokoto Clay, Gold, Granite, Gypsum, Kaolin, Laterite, Limestone, Phosphate, potash, Silica sand and Salt.

Clay, Limestone and salt Gold, Garnite, Gypsum, Kaolin, Laterite, Potash, Phosphate and silica sand
35. Taraba Lead/Zinc, Kaolin Lead/Zinc Kaolin
36. Yobe Soda Ash Kaolin
37. Zamfara Coal, Cotton and Gold Cotton Gold, Coal and Cotton.

SUGGESTIONS:
With the usefulness of such resources, it definitely will lead to economic growth and development.

CONCLUSION:
Although there is now a clarion call to shift our main base to the agricultural resources in Nigeria.

34. Sokoto Clay, Gold, Granite, Gypsum, Kaolin, Laterite, Limestone, Phosphate, potash, Silica sand and Salt.

Clay, Limestone and salt Gold, Garnite, Gypsum, Kaolin, Laterite, Potash, Phosphate and silica sand
35. Taraba Lead/Zinc, Kaolin Lead/Zinc Kaolin
36. Yobe Soda Ash Kaolin
37. Zamfara Coal, Cotton and Gold Cotton Gold, Coal and Cotton.

SUGGESTIONS:
If only the government would take necessary steps to develop this untapped resources through technological factors to make them useful and perform better. With the usefulness of such resources, it definitely will lead to economic growth and development.

CONCLUSION:
Nature has endowed Nigeria with numerous natural resources. Most of these resources have not yet been tapped or even used for the enrichment and development of Nigeria and her citizens.
Our dependence on oil has cost us a lot. Although there is now a clarion call to shift our main base to the agricultural resources in Nigeria, government should learn and we as a Nation to use these God given resources not only for selfish purpose but for the good of all.

CONCLUSION
From the findings, one could say without any equivocation that Nigeria is undoubtedly blessed with abundant mineral resources. But very unfortunately, an overwhelming majority of these resources are not been effectively utilized.
For instance, it will be surprising to know that Nigeria still import semi-finished drink cans, when the mineral resources used in producing cans (Manganese) is available in great quantity within the country.
Furthermore, we all know the importance of fertilizer to the growth of the agricultural sector. Interestingly, the basic mineral resources used in manufacturing fertilizer (Gypsum and Selenite) are available in various parts of the country. But today, it is very disheartening to know that a larger percentage of the fertilizers used in Nigeria are being imported at exorbitant prices that are in most cases beyond the reach of many farmers, especially the peasant ones.
One can go on and on to enumerate the unused mineral resources deposited in Nigeria which when fully utilized could catapult her into the group of the most developed countries in the world and proudly raise her shoulder high as truly the GIANT OF AFRICA.
As a way of recommendation, Nigeria should urgently adopt the (true) fiscal federalism. The current system where the federal government controls all mineral resources should be immediately eradicated. Some of these resources could be tapped and effectively utilized by the various states if they are given the legal (fiscal) backing to do so.
Finally, until Nigeria start to think outside the box and divert her attention from crude oil, she may continue to wallow in underdevelopment.

20
Katsina
Kaolin, Marble, Salt
Salt, Marble
Kaolin

21
Kebbi
Gold

Gold
22
Kogi
Iron-Ore, Kaolin, Gypsum, Feldspar, Coal, Marble, Dolomite, Talc, Tantalite
Marble
Iron-Ore, Kaolin, Gypsum, Feldspar, Coal, Dolomite, Talc, Tantalite

23
Kwara
Gold, Marble, Iron-Ore, Cassiterite, Columbite, Tantalise, Feldspar(Traces), Mica(Traces)
Marble,
Iron-Ore, Cassiterite, Columbite, Tantalise, Feldspar, Mica
Gold
24
Lagos
Glass-sand, Clay, Bitumen, Crude Oil
Clay, Crude Oil
Glass-sand, Bitumen

25
Nasarawa
Beryl(Emerald), Aquamarine, Heliodor, Dolomite/Marble, Sapphire, Tourmaline, Quartz, Zircon, Tantalite, Cassiterite, Columbite, Lamanite, Galena, Iron-Ore, Barytes, Feldstar, Limestone, Mica, Cooking coal, Talc, Clay, Salt, Chalcopyrite
Dolomite/Marble, Cooking Clay, Salt
Beryl(Emerald), Aquamarine, Heliodor, Sapphire, Tourmaline, Quartz, Zircon, Tantalite, Cassiterite, Columbite, Lamanite, Galena, Iron-Ore, Barytes, Feldstar, Limestone, Mica, Talc, Chalcopyrite

26
Niger
Gold, Talc, Lead/Zinc

Talc, Lead/Zinc
Gold
27
Ogun
Phosphate, Clay, Feldspar(traces), Kaolin, Limestone, Gemstone, Bitumen
Clay
Phosphate, Feldspar, Kaolin, Limestone, Gemstone, Bitumen

28
Ondo
Bitumen, Kaolin, Gemstone, Gypsum, Feldspar, Granite, Clay, Glass-sand, Dimension stones, Limestone, Coal, Crude Oil
Crude Oil, Clay
Bitumen, Kaolin, Gemstone, Gypsum, Feldspar, Granite, Glass-sand, Dimension stones, Limestone, Coal

29
Osun
Talc, Tourmaline, Columbite, Granite

Talc, Tourmaline, Columbite, Granite

30
Oyo
Kaoline, Marble, Clay, Sillimanite, Talc, Gold, Cassiterite, Aquamarine, Dolomite, Gemstone, Tantalite
Marble, Clay
Kaoline, Sillimanite, Talc, Cassiterite, Aquamarine, Gemstone, Tantalite
Gold
31
Plateau
Emerald, Tin, Marble, Granite, Tantalite/columbite, Lead/Zinc, Barytes, Iron-Ore, Kaolin, Belonite, Cassiterite, Pyrochlore, Clay, Coal, Wolfram, Salt, Bismuth, Fluoride, Molybdenite, Gemstone, Bauxite
Marble, Clay, Salt
Emerald, Tin, Granite, Tantalite/columbite, Lead/Zinc, Barytes, Iron-Ore, Kaolin, Belonite, Cassiterite, Pyrochlore, Coal, Wolfram, Bismuth, Fluoride, Molybdenite, Gemstone, Bauxite

32
Rivers
Glass-sand, Clay, Marble, Lignite(traces), Crude Oil
Clay, Marble,Crude Oil
Glass-sand, Lignite

RSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA
FACULTY OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS

TOPIC:
LIST THE MINERAL RESOURCES IN ALL THE STATES OF THE FEDERATION AND INDICATE WHETHER THEY ARE UTILIZED, UNDERUTILIZED OR MISUTILIZED

AN ASSIGNMENT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE COURSE: ECO 0511 (PROBLEMS AND POLICIES OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT)

BY
AGU CHRISTIAN
LECTURER-IN-CHARGE: DR. TONY ORJI
JULY, 2018
INTRODUCTION
A mineral is a naturally occurring substance that is solid and inorganic, representable by a chemical formula, usually abiogenic and has an ordered atomic structure.
Nigeria is among countries in Africa with a wide variety of different natural resources. The country is richly endowed with natural resources ranging from industrial metals to various precious stones such as Barites, Gypsum, Kaolin and Marble. Most of these minerals are yet to be exploited.
The Nigerian Extractive Industries and Transparency Initiative, NEITI report suggests that there are about 40 different kinds of solid minerals and precious metals buried in Nigerian soil waiting to be exploited. The commercial value of Nigeria’s solid minerals has been estimated to run into hundreds of trillions of dollars, with 70 percent of these buried in the bowels of Northern Nigeria.
Mining regulation is handled by the Ministry of Solid Minerals Development, which oversees the management of all mineral resources. Mining law is codified in the Federal Minerals and Mining Act of 1999. Historically, Nigeria’s mining industry was monopolized by state-owned public corporations. This led to a decline in productivity in almost all mineral industries.
Below are the list of mineral resources in Nigeria and their location:

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT ECONOMICS

TOPIC:

NATURAL RESOURCES UTILIZATION, UNDERUTILIZATION AND MIS UTILIZATION IN THE 36 STATES OF NIGERIA

AN ASSIGNMENT WRITTEN IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE REQUIREMENT OF THE COURSE: ECO 0511
(PROBLEM AND POLICIES OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT)

BY:

DOKUBO JOHNSON MONOVIE
PG/PGD/17/01047

LECTURER:
DR. A. ORJI

JULY, 2018

INTRODUCTION
Nigeria, A nation in West Africa on the gulf of Guinea, bordering Benin in the West, Chad and Cameroon to the east, and Niger in the north formerly a British Colony and protectorate. It became independent in 1960; a republic since 1963, member of the common wealth in 1960 (membership suspended from 1995 to 1999 following human right violations) Eastern Region seceded as the Republic of Biafra for the duration of the severe civil war (1967-1970); ruled by military government from 1966 to 1999. It consists of a belt of tropical rain forest in the south, with Simi-desert in the extreme North and high lands in the east the main export is petroleum.
Nigerian is often referred to as the “Giant of Africa” owing to its economy and large population of about 195,824 as of Monday, July 2, 2018 based on the latest United Nation estimates, Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa and the seventh most populous country in the world. The country is viewed as a multinational state as it is inhabited by over 500 ethnic groups, of which the three largest are the Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba; these ethnic groups speak over 500 different language and are identify with a wide variety of cultures. The official languages is English, Nigeria is divided roughly in half between Christians, who like mostly in the southern part of the country and Muslims, who live mostly in the north. A minority of the population practices religions indigenous to Nigeria such as those native of the Igbo and Yoruba ethnicities. The capital city is Abuja and its largest city is Lagos it uses Naira as its currency.

NATURAL RESOURCES OF THE 36 STATES OF NIGERIA

No/S States Natural Resources Resources that are utilized Resources that are under utilized Resources that are miss utilized
1. Abia Gold, Lead/Zinc, limestone, oil/Gas and salt Oil/Gas, Limestone Lead/zinc, gold Salt
2. Abuja Cassiterite, clay, dolomite, gold, lead/zinc Clay, lead/zinc marble Gold, domomite; cassierite, tantalite
3. Adamawa Bentonite, Gypsum, Kaolin and Magnesite Bentonite Gypsum, kaolin mangnesite
4. Akwa Ibom Clay, lead/zinc, lignite, limestone, oil/gas, salt and uranium Oil/gas, limestone, clay, lead/zinc Uramium, lignite Salt
5. Anambra Clay, Glass-sand, gypsum, iron-ore, lead/zinc lignite, limestone, phosphate and salt.
Lead/zinc, limestone, salt, clay Phosphate, gypsum iron-ore, glass-sand
6. Bauchi Gold, cassiterite (tin ore), columbite gypsum, uranium, coal, limestone, lignite, iron-ore and clay. Lead/zinc, gypsum, clay limestone Uramium, iron-ore, gold, columbite, cassiterite, lignite coal
7. Bayelsa Clay, gypsum, lead/zinc, lignite, limestone, manganese, oil/gas and uranium Oil/Gas, clay Lignite, limestone, uranium, gypsum lead/zinc, manganese Oil/gas, clay
8. Benue Barite, Clay, cola, gemstone, gypsum, iron-ore, lead/zinc, limestone, marble and alt Gemstone, salt, marble clay, limestone Barite, gypsum, iron-ore coal, lead/zinc
9. Born Bentonite, clay, diatomite, gypsum, hydrocarbon, kaolin and limestone.
Clay, limestone Bentonite, diatomite, Hydrocarbon, gypsum, kaolin.